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THE EVOLUTION OF GRAPHIC DESIGN

The evolution of graphic design as a practice and profession has been closely bound to (1) technological innovations, societal needs and the visual imagination of practitioners (35). What is now known as “graphic design” has been practiced (7) in various forms throughout history. The first examples of it date back to (5) early civilizations: the multiple relics (36) found all over the world – rock and cave paintings, decorated pottery and ceramics (27) – show that graphics enjoys (6) many thousand years of history shared among humanity. Together with “writing” – the representation of language textually (18) through the use of (23) a set of signs or symbols – which emerged in 3000-4000 BC, these prehistoric figures – animals, human figures and abstract signs – constitute the foundation of the Graphic Design.

While early manuscript designers were not consciously (14) creating “graphic designs,” scribes (38) and illustrators worked to compose a blend (25) of text and image that was at once harmonious and effective at (10) conveying the idea of the manuscript.

As printing and book production developed in the 15th century, advances in graphic art developed alongside it over subsequent (11) centuries, with compositors (29) or typesetters (40) often designing pages as they set the type (37).

In the late 19th century, graphic design emerged as a distinct profession in the West, in part because of (20) the job specialization process (13) that occurred there, and in part (21) thanks to (20) the new technologies and commercial possibilities brought about (2) by the Industrial Revolution (41). New production methods led to the separation of the design of a communication medium (30) (e.g., a poster (33)) from its actual production. Increasingly (16), over the course of (22) the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, advertising agencies, book publishers, and magazines hired art directors who organized all visual elements of the communication and brought them into a harmonious whole, creating an expression appropriate to (9) the content.

The mechanization of printing (34) technology allowed the mass production of inexpensive colour printing and gave rise to a new field of graphic art and visual communication. The combination "Graphic Design" newly (17) minted (7) to identify the emerging field first appeared in print in William Addison Dwiggins’ 1922 essay "New Kind of Printing Calls for (3) New Design". Correspondingly (15), the artists designing printed material and formerly known as “commercial artists” came (4) to be called graphic designers.

Throughout the 20th century, the technology available to designers continued to advance rapidly, as did (42) the artistic and commercial possibilities for design. The profession expanded enormously, and graphic designers created, among other things (19), magazine pages, book jackets (26), posters (33), compact-disc covers (28), postage stamps (32), packaging, trademarks (39), signs, advertisements, kinetic titles (31) for television programs and motion pictures, and Web sites. By the turn of the 21st century (24), graphic design had become a global profession, as advanced technology (8) and industry spread throughout the world.

UNIT III

VERBS & COMBINATIONS WITH VERBS

1. to echo in smth ['ɪkəʊ] – повторяться, отражаться, вториться в чём-л

2. to father smth ['fɑ:ðə] – порождать что-л

syn. to generate smth, give birth to smth, to give rise to smth

COMBINATIONS WITH ADJECTIVES

3. a cohesive whole [kəʊ'hi:sɪv 'həʊl] – единое целое

4. to be responsible for smth – отвечать (быть ответственным) за что-л

NOUNS & COMBINATIONS WITH THEIR ATTRIBUTES

5. advent ['ædvənt] – прибытие, приход, появление

syn. arrival, emergence

6. time-consuming production ['taɪm kən'sju:mɪŋ prə'dʌkʃən] – трудоёмкое производство

 

ADVERBS

7. fairly ['feəlɪ] – довольно, достаточно, в известной степени

syn. quite, rather, somewhat, (разг.) pretty

8. vibrantly (to contrast with smth) – живо, резко, ярко (контрастировать с чем-л)

SET PHRASES

9. as early as (some time) – уже в (какое-л время)

10. both … and … [bəʊθ … ənd] – (correlative conj. – парный союз) и …, и …; как …, так и …

 

PROFESSIONAL TERMS

11. brush [brʌʃ] кисть; (перен.) работа кистью (также brushwork)

12. to brush [brʌʃ] – наносить кистью

13. flat colour ['flæt 'kʌlə] – блеклый, тусклый цвет

N.B.: Mind the word-order change in the translation of the combination:

flat areas of colour – участки тусклого цвета

14. illuminated manuscript [ɪˌl(j)u:mɪ'neɪtɪd 'mænjuskrɪpt] – иллюминированная рукопись (богато украшенная золотом, серебром, драгоценными камнями и рисунками)

15. illuminator [ɪˌl(j)u:mɪ'neɪtə] – художник-иллюминатор (оформитель и иллюстратор рукописей цветными рисунками)

16. initial ['ɪnɪʃ(ə)l] (letter) – заглавная (буква)

syn. capital letter – большая, прописная (буква)

17. ink [ɪŋk] – чернила

18. hieroglyphic writing [ˌhaɪ(ə)rə'glɪfɪk 'raɪtɪŋ] – надпись иероглифами

19. to lay out a page ['leɪ 'aʊt ə 'peɪdʒ] – размечать, планировать страницу

20. letterer ['letərə] – шрифтовик

21. marginalia [ˌmɑ:dʒɪ'neɪljə] (в полиграфии) боковушки, маргиналии, поля (книги), сноски на полях (книги)

22. nib [nɪb] – (заострённый) кончик (обычно гусиного пера), перо (пишущей ручки)

23. parchment ['pɑ:tʃmənt] – пергамент

24. stroke [strəʊk] – штрих

25. substrate ['sʌbstreɪt] – основание, основа

syn. substratum (pl –ta)

26. texture ['tekstʃə] текстура, структура, фактура

27. vellum ['veləm] – (тонкий) пергамент, пергамен (кожа), велень, веленевая бумага, плотная писчая бумага

CULTUROLOGICAL & HISTORICAL TERMS

28. aphabet ['ælfəbɪt] – азбука, алфавит. В тексте различают:

29. Cyrillic a. [sɪ'rɪlɪk] – кириллица, славянская азбука, русский (болгарский, сербский) шрифт

30. Etruscan a. [ɪ'trʌskən] – этрусский алфавит. Этруски – древние племена, населявшие в первом тысячелетии до н.э. северо-запад Аппенинского полуострова, древнюю Этрурия, современную Тоскану.

31. Greek a. [ɡri:k] – (древне)греческий алфавит

32. Latin a. ['lætɪn] – латинский алфавит

33. Phoenician a. – Финикийский алфавит. Один из первых зафиксированных в истории человечества систем фонетического письма, появившийся около XIII века до н. э. и давший начало практически всем алфавитным системам, существующим на сегодняшний день.

34. city-state [ˌsɪtɪ'steɪt] – полис (город-государство у древних греков)

35. codex (pl. сodices) – рукописная книга (Библия, сборник античных писателей, древние рукописи)

36. copista [kə'pɪstə] (из итальянского) (= English copyist) переписчик

syn. v.s. UNIT III: scribe

37. monastic scriptorium [mə'næstɪk skrɪp'tɔ:rɪəm] – монастырское помещение для переписки рукописей

38. scrittore (pl –ri) [skrɪ'tɔ:rə -rɪ] – (из итальянского) (= English scribe)писец, писарь, переписчик

39. scroll ['skrəʊl] – свиток (как вид рукописи)

syn. roll

40. uncial (writing style) ['ʌnsɪəl] – унциальный (стиль письма). Вариант одного из основных типов обычного письма III—V вв. Характеризуется крупными, округлыми буквами без острых углов и ломаных линий.

CULTUROLOGICAL & HISTORICAL TERMS

41. the Egyptian Book of the Dead [ði ɪ'dʒɪp∫(ə)n 'bʊk əv ðə 'ded]

– Египетская Книга Мёртвых

42. the Roman Empire[ðə 'rəʊmən 'empaɪə] – Римская Империя

MANUSCRIPT DESIGN IN ANTIQUITY

Although its advent (5) as a profession is fairly (7) recent, graphic design has roots that reach deep into antiquity. The invention of the alphabet (28) (from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet (32), alpha and beta) made possible to represent the sounds of a spoken language by a set of visual symbols transferred to a special surface. The ancient Greeks adopted the “Phoenician alphabet” (34) and spread it through their city-states (35) around 1000 BC. As early as (9) 2nd century A.D., the Greeks developed a more rounded writing style called “uncial” (40). This script could be written more quickly because its rounded letters were formed with fewer strokes (24). Greek scribes made their pens from hard reeds, cut into a nib (22) and split at the tip to aid ink (17) flow. These pens gave their writing a totally different character than writing by Egyptian scribes, who used soft reeds to brush (12) ink (17) on the substrate (25). The Greek alphabet fathered (2) the Etruscan (31), Latin (33), and Cyrillic (30) alphabets.

The manuscripts made in ancient China, Egypt, Greece and Rome were richly illustrated. In a manuscript the text was supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials (16), marginalia (21) and miniature illustrations. The luminosity of gold and silver reflecting light from the pages of handwritten book, gave the sensation of the page being illuminated; this effect gave birth to the term “illuminated manuscript” (14). Today this name is used for all decorated and illustrated handwritten books produced from the late Roman Empire until typography was developed in Europe around 1450.

Manuscript production was costly and time consuming (6). Around 190 B.C. in the Roman Empire, parchment (23), made from the skins of domestic animals, began to be used as a substrate (25). Vellum (27), the finest parchment (23), is made from the skin of newborn calves. With the use of parchment (23), the codex (35) (book form) began to compete with the scroll (39). Nearly all books were created in the monastic scriptorium (37) or writing room. Its head was the “scrittore” (38), a well educated scholar who understood Greek and Latin and functioned as both editor and art director. The scrittori (38) laid out the pages (19) to indicate where the illustrations were to be added after the text was written. The “copista” (36) was a production letterer (20) who spent his days bent over a writing table penning pages in a trained lettering style. The illuminator (15) or illustrator was an artist responsible for (4) ornamentation and images.

The ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, which contained texts intended to aid the deceased in the afterlife, is a superb example of early graphic design. Hieroglyphic narratives penned by scribes are supplied with colourful illustrations on rolls of papyrus. Words and pictures are unified into a cohesive whole (3): both elements are compressed into a horizontal band, the repetitive vertical structure of the writing is echoed (1) in both the columns and (10) the figures, and a consistent style of brushwork (11) is used for the writing and drawing. Flat areas of colour (13) are bound by firm brush (11) contours that contrast vibrantly (8) with the rich texture (26) of the hieroglyphic writing (18).

Illustrations: 1. Uncial – the book hand of 5th – 8th centuries 2. Papyrus page from the Book of the Dead, 18th dynasty; in the Egyptian Museum, Turin, Italy. Egyptian Museum, Torino, Italy

 

UNIT IV

VERBS & COMBINATIONS WITH VERBS

1. to depict smth as …[dɪ'pɪkt] – изображать что-л как …

2. to exert influence upon smth [ɪg'zз:t 'ɪnflʊəns ə'pɒn] – оказывать влияние на что-л

syn. to have influence upon smth, to influence smth, to have impact upon smth

3. to jot a note (in the margin) ['dʒɒt ə 'nəʊt] – сделать отметку (на поле страницы книги)

4. to give way to smth ['gɪv 'weɪ] – уступить чему-либо, отступить и дать дорогу чему-либо

 

COMBINATIONS WITH ADJECTIVES

5. to be mindful of smth – уделять внимание чему-л, помнить о чём-л, не забывать о чём-л

6. oriental trend [ɔ:rɪ'entl 'trend] – восточный мотив (в искусстве)

7. to be versed in (some art, occupation, language, etc.) – быть сведущем в (каком-л искусстве, занятии, языке, и т.п.)

NOUNS & COMBINATIONS WITH THEIR ATTRIBUTES

8. division of labour – разделение труда

v.s. UNIT II: job specialization process

 

ADVERBS

9. greatly (to influence smth) ['greɪtlɪ] – в значительной мере (степени), сильно (повлиять на что-л)

10. intricately ['ɪntrɪktlɪ] – замысловато, затейливо

11. primarily ['praɪmərɪlɪ] – в основном, главным образом

syn. chiefly, essentially, predominantly, principally

– в первую очередь; изначально

syn. firstly, originally

SET PHRASES

12. rather than ['rɑ:ðə 'ðæn] – а не …, но не …

e.g. They made up their mind to die rather than surrender. – Они решили скорее умереть, чем сдаться.

13. a vast variety of smth ['vɑ:st və'raɪətɪ] – большое разнообразие чего-л

syn. an abundance of …, a great number of …, quite a number of …, a lot of …, lots of …, plenty of …

 

PROFESSIONAL TERMS

14. approach [ə'prəʊtʃ] – подход (в искусстве или науке)

15. editorial content – редакторская часть работы (оформление)

16. margin ['mɑ:dʒɪn] – поле (страницы книги)

17. overtone ['əʊvətəʊn] – нотка, подтекст

18. pattern ['pæt(ə)n] – узор; модель

19. (semi-)precious stone [ˌsemɪ'preʃəs 'stəʊn] – (полу)драгоценный камень

20. to treat (some material) – обрабатывать (какой-л материал)

treated – обработанный

 

CULTUROLOGICAL & HISTORICAL TERMS

21. Byzantine Empire [bɪ'zæntaɪn 'empaɪə] – Византийская Империя

22. Сrusader [kru:'seɪdə] – крестоносец

23. gospel book ['gɒsp(ə)l] – евангелие, Новый Завет

24. Hiberno-Saxon (Insular) style [haɪ'bз:nəʊ 'sæks(ə)n] – ирландско-саксонский (островной) стиль

25. International Gothic style ['gɒθɪk] – стиль “интернациональная готика” (Стилистический вариант последних этапов готики, развившийся в Бургундии, Богемии и Северной Италии примерно с 1380 по 1430 годы. Термин был предложен в 1890-х годах историками искусства Луи Куражо (Франция) и Юлиус фон Шлоссер (Австрия)).

26. Matthew 1:18 ['mæθju:] – Евангелие от Матфея, глава 1, стих 18

27. paradigm ['pærədaɪm] – образец, пример, экземпляр; (спец. парадигма)

syn. case, example, instance

28. crusaders' sack of Constantinople – разорение (разграбление) Константинополя крестоносцами

CONSTRUCTION

29.N.B.: Take care to do an adequate translation into Russian of the varieties of the COMPLEX SUBJECT construction with:

1. The Indefinite Infinitive: Smb / smth is believed to do smth

e.g. John is believed to respect his friends. – Считается, что Джон уважает своих друзей. (Сейчас)

2. The Indefinite Passive Infinitive: Smb / smth is believed to be done

e.g. John is believed to be respected by his friends. – Считается, что Джона уважают его друзья. (Сейчас)

3. The Perfect Infinitive: Smb / smth is believed to have done

e.g. John is believed to have respected his friends. . – Считается, что Джон уважал своих друзей. (В прошлом)

4. The Perfect Passive Infinitive: Smb / smth is believed to have been done

e.g. John is believed to have been respected by his friends. – Считается, что Джона уважали его друзья. (В прошлом)

 

Последнее изменение этой страницы: 2016-07-23

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