Describe the territorial expansion of the USA in the first half of the 19th century.

Geographical position.

The United States of America is the world's third largest country with an area of 9.6 million square kilometers, the population — over 300 million people (2007). Most of the country is in the central part of North America. It is bordered by Canada on the north and Mexico on the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Due to its geographical position and administrative division the United States is one of the few fragmented countries in the world. Of the fifty states of the country forty-eight states are conterminous, or enclosed within one common boundary. The other two states, Alaska and Hawaii, are located apart from the rest of the country. Alaska is locat­ed in the far northwestern part of North America, bordering western Canada. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean to the south and west of mainland North America. The United States occupies a favourable geographical position. The Atlantic Ocean is of great importance for the country's sea communications with Europe, Africa and South America. The sea routes to Asia and Australia pass over the Pacific Ocean. The sea route through the Panama Canal, which connects the two oceans, runs over the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.

The physical geography of the United States is as varied as that of any other coun­try in the world. There are huge forests, large areas of flat, grassy plains, and deserts. An average elevation of about 762 meters masks some great variations. These variations range from a low of 86 meters below sea level in California to a high of over 6,000 meters above sea level in Alaska.

The people of the United States are descended from many, many different groups of people from around the world. It is a country of immigrants. The first inhabitants came from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait into Alaska during the last Ice Age. Almost 40,000 years later, Spanish adventurers entered what is now the southwestern United States by way of Mexico. From that time, migrations have continued — Europeans, Africans, Asians, and other people from the Americas entering the country to live and work, adding their cultures to that of the nation.

The United States is spread over a huge area of the Western Hemisphere. For exam­ple, the total distance between the most eastern Florida Key and most western island of Hawaii is 9,418 kilometers. The conterminous United States stretches some 4,664 kilo­meters from Maine in the east to California in the west. From the northern border of North Dakota to the southern border of Texas, it is 2,585 kilometers.

It is little wonder that within a country so large there can be found so many different landscapes.

The country can be divided from the point of view of physical geography into nine regions. These are: (1) the Coastal plains, (2) the Appalachian Highlands, (3) the Interior Plains, (4) the Interior Highlands, (5) the Rocky Mountains, (6) the Intermontane Plateaus and Basins, (7) the Pacific Coastal Ranges, (8) Alaska, and (9) Hawaii.

The process of president elections.

The method of electing President is peculiar to the US. The presidential election is technically an election of presidential electors, not of a President directly. The people of each state don't vote directly for the president. They elect as many electors as this state has senators and representatives in the congress. These electors are selected exclusively by the corresponding party machines. The candidate with the highest number of votes in each state wins all the electoral votes of the state. The electors of all 50 states and District Columbia (3 electors) compose the Electoral Collage (538 persons), though it never meets as a body. The Electoral College is an example of an indirect election. Instead the electors gather in the state capitals shortly after the election and cast their votes for the candidate with the largest number of popular votes in their respective states. To be elected President, a candidate must receive 270 votes. If no candidate has a majority, the decision should be made by the House of Representatives, with all members from a state voting as a unit. In this state, each state and the District Columbia would be given one vote only. Candidates for the Presidency are chosen by political parties several months before the presidential election, which is held every four years. 2004 - Bush was reelected for his 2ntt term. 2008 – B.Obama. His main aims in foreign policy are: he'd draw down forces in Iraq; open talks with adversaries such as Iran, Syria and Cuba; end torture and close Guantánamo; renounce unilateralism and preventive wars; rebuild ties with allies; and re-engage with the Kyoto climate change initiative. He's also pledged to halt the development of and to seek a "world without nuclear weapons." Obama would start to put the threat of terrorism in its proper perspective, elevating the importance of other threats to security, from poverty to pandemic disease to global warming. Obama promises to increase Pentagon spending, boost the size of the Army and Marines, bolster the Special Forces, expand intelligence agencies and maintain the hundreds of US military bases that dot the globe.

Parties in US.

Today the United States has two major political parties. One is the Democratic Party, whose origins go back to the nation's third president, Thomas Jefferson and which formed before 1800 The other is the republican Party, which was formed in the 1850s, by people in the states of the North and West, such as Abraham Lincoln, who wanted the government to prevent the expansion of slavery into new states then being admitted to the union. Party membership in any American party is rarely formal. Members of the Democratic and Republican parties are not registered, they do not have cards and do not pay membership dues. There are no official formalities for admission. Any voter during elections may become a Republican or a Democrat by a simple declaration, that he is a member of this or that party. He takes no responsibilities when he makes that declaration. Associating with a party is strictly and exclusively a. matter of individual self-expression.

One explanation for the long life of the Republican and Democratic parties is that they are not strong ideological organizations, but loose alliances of state and local parties that unite every four years for the presidential election. Most Americans today consider the Democratic Party the more liberal party. As they understand it the Democrats believe that the federal government and the state governments should be active in providing social and economic programs for those who need them, During the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt the government under the Democratic Party established the Social

Security program, which ensures that those who are retired or disabled receive monthly payments from the government.

Republicans are not vividly opposed-to -such programs. However, they believe that many social programs are too costly to the taxpayers and that when taxes are raised to pay for such programs, everyone is hurt. They place more emphasis on private enterprise and often accuse the Democrats of making the government too expensive. For that reason, Americans tend to think of the Republican Party as more conservative.

On the road to independence

The Seven Years' War cost Britain a lot of money and a lot of politicians reasoned that the colonists should sustain the expenses of the war effort. Heavy taxes were introduced on sugar, coffee, textiles and other imported goods. Britain was worried by America's growing economy and possible competition. So she did everything to harass this development. The Quartering Act forced the colonies to house and feed British soldiers. The last of the measures of the new financial system was the Stamp Act of 1765 which provided that special stamps were to be attached to all newspapers, pamphlets, leases or other legal documents. It aroused the hostility of most of the American population. Representatives from nine colonies met and convened the "Stamp Act Congress" demanding that "no taxes ever have been or can be imposed on them", and that it "sub­verted the rights and liberties of the colonists". Opposition was so widespread that the British government was forced to repeal the Stamp Act. At the same time British soldiers were sent to Boston where tension was high. The most popular slogan of the day was "No taxation without representation". The colonists demanded that taxes only be introduced with the consent of colonial assemblies. To defuse the situation the British government abolished many of the new taxes except that on tea. This led to new confrontation which served to drive the colonies into war against the Mother Country,

On the night of December 16, 1773, a band of men boarded three British ships lying at anchor in Boston harbour and dumped 342 crates of tea into the waters of the port. They took this step as a form of protest. The British parliament responded by imposing the "Intolerable Acts" and closing the port of Boston to all shipping.

In September 1774, the First Continental Congress was convened in Philadelphia. The Congress urged colonists to boycott British trade and to organize units of militias to oppose the British army. Quite soon the growing confronta­tion broke into open fire. On April 19,1775 the commander of the English garrison in Boston sent a unit of sol­diers to the town of Concord to seize arms stored by the colonists. At the village of Lexington the first battle was. A major exchange of fire took place leaving 8 dead and 10 wounded. This was "the shot heard round the world" which led to the American War of Independence (1775 — 1783).

In May 1775, a second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and assumed the powers of a national government. It formed a Continental Army and Navy under the Command of Colonel George Washington. The Congress printed its own paper money and sought to establish diplomatic relations with foreign countries. On July 2,1776, the Congress finally decid­ed "that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be free and independent states".

Thomas Jefferson, together with others, drafted a Declaration of Independence, which the Congress adopted on July 4,1776. The Declaration not only announced the birth of a new nation, but also set forth the principles of human freedom. In particular, the philosophy of John Locke was universalized into the natural rights of humankind that men have a natural right to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness", that governments can rule only with "the consent of the governed", that any government may be replaced when it fails to protect the rights of the people. However, these inalienable rights did not apply to millions of Negro slaves, and the institution of slavery continued to exist.

It was one thing to proclaim independence, but another to win independence. At first the war did not go well for the American army. At times it seemed that the British army of Redcoats would win, but little by little the situation changed when the American army was joined by thou­sands of volunteers. In October 1777 the British army under General John Burgoyne suf­fered heavy defeat at Saratoga in northern New York. After this victory France seized the opportunity to humble Britain. A Franco-American alliance was signed in February 1778. The Americans began to receive financial and military help from France, and the French navy supported the Americans at sea.

In 1781 at Yorktown 8,000 British troops under General George Cornwallis were surrounded by a French fleet from the sea and a combined French-American army under George Washington. Soon after­wards the British government asked for peace. Britain finally recognized the independ­ence of the United States by signing the Treaty of Paris in September 1783. All the ter­ritory north of Florida which was returned to Spain, south of Canada and east of the Mississippi River formed the United States of America. The 13 colonies were now free and independent. The events of the War of Independence are also termed as the American Revolution because with the formation of the United States a republic was established as a result of the struggle of the American colonists who overthrew a monarchy based on colonial exploitation and denial of civil and political rights. The American people cherish the democratic gains of the American Revolution. Moreover, the American Revolution had a great impact on the development of events in Europe, helping to trigger the French Revolution of 1789.

5. Immigration. Population.
A vital role in the formation of the population of the US was played by the immigration. 1790 - 4 mln p, 1854 - 24 mln.

Reasons:

-discovery of gold

_ political & religious

freedom

-poverty & hunger

Immigrants often live by solid communities: Germans - Pennsylvania, Swedes - Minnesota, French - Louisiana, the Slavs - north-east. Lake district. they use their native languages & keep traditions.

Negro - 30mln (12%)

Spaniards - 17 mln

Indians - 1,5 mln

80% - english-speaking americans

Population - 260 mln (3rd in the world)

Average density - 26,2

Noortheast-374

South - 30

Pacific coast -64

MCs Dakota, Nebraska - 47

Wyoming - 2

Alaska - 0,3

The urban population is growing - now 74%

The biggest cities: New York (17,9 mln), Los Angeles (13 mln), Chicago <8,lmln), San Francisco, Philadelphia, Detroit.

Sex : male 48,6%, female 51,4%

Native Americans.

The white settlers described an Indian town, where the local people brought them corn bread and tobacco smoked in clay pipes. Of all that the Indians gave to the white settlers food was probably the most important thing at that time. Indian foods and methods of planting, hunting, and fishing helped the settlers to survive in their new home. Two of the most important crops in the world today — Indian corn and white potatoes - were first planted by American Indians, who also introduced the settlers to more than 80 other foods, including the sweet potato, pumpkin, squash, banana, pineapple, and avocado. The Native Americans showed the settlers how to cook these unknown plants to make grits, hominy, popcorn, succotash, and tapioca. Cacao (for chocolate), chicle (for chewing gum), and tobacco were also among the new crops. Many of the drugs which Indians received from plants (such as cocaine, which was used to kill pain) are used today for medical purposes. They helped by introducing them to Indian utensils, clothing, methods of transportation. They include canoes, dog sleds, hammocks, pipes, rubber balls, snowshoes, moccasins, parkas.

The influence of Indian cultures is quite evident in American English. Thousands of mountains, lakes, rivers, cities, states, have Indian names - Ohio, Chicago, Saratoga, Massachusetts, Mexico, Nicaragua, Montana, as well as common nouns -tobacco, skunk, moose, canoe, and hundreds of others. The Red Indians did much to help white settlers in the new land, but when the whites began to take their lands the Indians began to fight for their rights and terrible wars started. The Indians were defeated because they did not have the weapons which the white settlers had. The colonization of North America became a history of bloodshed and cruelty towards the Indians. Since 1786 they were pushed to live in reservations. The Indians began to protest treatment, began to improve. Now there are 1,5 Native Americans. There is a Bureau of Indian affairs.

Constitutional protection.

A constitutional protection against misused executive power is contained in the following provision; "The President, Vice-president and all civil officers of the US, shall be removed from office on impeachment for treason, bribery or other high crimes "

Under the Constitution power was divided among the three branches of the national government: legislative (the Congress), executive (the President) and judicial (the Supreme Court), Each was given its own authority. These 3 powers established a so-called system of the checks and balances. This system gives each branch the means to restrain the other 2. For example, the President has the power to veto acts passed by Congress, but the Congress may override the veto by a two-thirds majority. But the Supreme Court has the power to declare Acts of Congress (or of any State legislature) or the actions of a President to be illegal (or unconstitutional) if they are in conflict with the Constitution.

The Watergate scandal was an American political scandal during the presidency of Richard Nixon that resulted in the indictment and conviction of several of Nixon's closest advisors, and ultimately his resignation on August 9, 1974. The scandal began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Office complex in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972. The FBI, the Senate Watergate Committee, House Judiciary Committee and the press revealed that this burglary was one of many illegal activities authorized and carried out by Nixon's staff. They also revealed the immense scope of crimes and abuses, which included campaign fraud, political espionage and sabotage, illegal break-ins, improper tax audits, illegal wiretapping on a massive scale, and a secret slush fund laundered in Mexico to pay those who conducted these operations. Nixon and his staff conspired to cover up the break-in as early as six days after it occurred. After two years of mounting evidence against the President and his staff, it was revealed that Nixon had a tape recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations. Recordings from these tapes revealed that he had obstructed justice and attempted to cover up the break-in. This recorded conversation later became known as the Smoking Gun. After a series of court battles, the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the President had to hand over the tapes; he ultimately complied. Facing certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and the strong possibility of a conviction in the Senate, Nixon resigned ten days later, becoming the only U.S. president to have resigned from office.

Canada after WWII

When WWII began, Canada on it's own entered the war. Factories poured out mass supplies to send to the aid of Britain. This effort gave its diplomats a voice. With the war won, Canadians turned their attention to the development of the nation, independent &constructive participation in world affairs. The country played great role in working out the postwar trading world and in creating united nations in 1945; played a crucial role in creating the NATO in 1949. It was a golden age of Canadian diplomacy.

When in 1957 conservative party won Canada's unaccustomed power was returning to its more-usual status. Canada was a middle power. But with the help of USA this government was brought down in 1963. Pearson (head of the Liberals) agreed with US on vital issues, but his successor, Pierre Trudeau was nationalist which led to greater friction between the two powers. The situation changed in 1984 when the Conservative party under Brian Mulroney came to power. - main aim to restore good relationships with USA. 1988 - Free trade agreement (with president Reagan). The next step was the conclusion of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) in 1994. Canada, USA, Mexico - parts of unified trading zones. In April 1982 Queen Elizabeth II visited Canada to sign the constitution - complete independence of Canada.

The growing national assertiveness of Canada was seen in the adoption of its flag in 1965. Now Canada's stature in the world stands high. By estimates she has won the reputation of the country where the population enjoys the highest ratings in quality of life. Belongs to G-7 club, which includes the seven most advanced countries of the world.

24. Canada contains a mixture of diverse national and cultural groups. At the time of Canada's first census, in 1871, about half the population was British and nearly one-third was French. With this successive waves of immigration during the late 19th and 20th centuries, C. became a multicultural society. But what does that mean? Simply stated, it means that Canadians are not of any one cultural background, race or heritage. Instead, Canadians today reflect a vast diversity of cultural heritages and racial groups. This multicultural diversity is a result of centuries of immigration. The proportion of Canadians of British and French ancestry has dropped to about one-fourth each, as fewer people have immigrated from the United Kingdom and France and considerably more have arrived from other countries in Europe, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. Because immigrant groups have tended to settle in particular locales, they generally have retained their cultural identity. With the introduction in 1967 of immigration policy that eliminated these preferences for particular national groups, there had been a dramatic change in the formation of Canadian immigrants. Now almost 754 come from Asia, Africa, Latin America, Caribbean. Now: According to the 2006 census, there are 43 ethnic origins that at least one hundred thousand people in Canada claim in their background. The largest ethnic group- is English (21,1%), followed by French (15.8%}, Scottish (15.2%), Irish 13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (5,1), Chinese (4,4), Ukrainian (3.61), and First Nations (3.5%); Approximately, one third of respondents identified their ethnicity as Canadian. According to Statistics Canada's forecasts, the number of visible minorities in Canada is expected to double by 2017. A survey released in 2007 reveals that virtually 19.8% Canadians are foreign born. Nearly 60% of new immigrants hail from Asia (including the Middle East). Canada has the highest per capital immigration rate in the world, driven by economic policy and family reunification; Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees. Newcomers settle mostly in the major urban areas of Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal. In the 2006 census, .there were 5,068,100 people considered to belong to a visible minority, making up 16.2% of the population. Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2%. Multiculturalism today has become a central force in Canadian life. What is a Canadian? C. are of course north americans and to that extent their way of life is very american. But c. worry about preserving their own identity while living next to such a large and populous country as the USA. They see and hold many differences that give them a separate identity on the continent. C. are extremely warm­hearted and polite people. They are not American, not British, not warlike or arrogant but certainly they are Canadian.

18. Structure of the President’s Administration.
Everyday work of the government is carried out by different executive departments (ministries), created by Congress to deal with national and international affairs. The heads (ministries) of these departments, chosen by the President and approved by the Senate, form the Cabinet. Today, these 14 departments are: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labour, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs. Each department has thousands of employees, with offices all over the country as well as in Washington. In addition to the executive departments, there are over fifty agencies in the Federal Government, the heads of which are directly responsible to the President, Each executive agency has certain duties and responsibilities. In 1947 the National Security Council was formed, which includes the President, the Vice-President, the Secretaries of State and Defense. It is the main centre of planning the American foreign and .military policy. The influence of the NSC is so great, that it is often called "the super cabinet".
In 2008 Obama was elected as President of the USA. His main aims in foreign policy are: he'd draw down forces in Iraq; open talks with adversaries such as Iran, Syria and Cuba; end torture and close Guantánamo; renounce unilateralism and preventive wars; rebuild ties with allies; and re-engage with the Kyoto climate change initiative. He's also pledged to halt the development of and to seek a "world without nuclear weapons." Obama would start to put the threat of terrorism in its proper perspective, elevating the importance of other threats to security, from poverty to pandemic disease to global warming. Obama promises to increase Pentagon spending, boost the size of the Army and Marines, bolster the Special Forces, expand intelligence agencies and maintain the hundreds of US military bases that dot the globe.

16. The president of the US is head of the executive power, or the Chief Executive, in addition he has important legislative and judicial power. The official residence the White House, Washington, DC. Must be at least 35, a resident of the country for at least 14 years and a national born citizen. The President is elected to a four-year term, for no more than two terms.. Everyday work of the government is carried out by 14 departments (ministries, created by Congress: State, Treasury, Defense etc.), the heads of these departments, chosen by the President and approved by the senate, form the Cabinet.
Functions.1) Executive ( carry out the government programs, issue executive orders, which have the force of low, can influence on public opinion)
2) Legislative (recommends laws to Congress, requests money for federal government operations, can veto any bill passed by Congress, though his veto may be overruled by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress)

3) Has authority to appoint the heads of all executive departments and agencies and other high-ranking officials [appointments must be approved by senate). Can grant full or conditional pardon to anyone accused of breaking a
federal low.

4) Responsible for foreign relations with other nations (treaties must be approved by 2/3 vote of senate).
Foreign policy (the latter half of 20-21st cent)

1) US acting as a global.-policeman

2)By the time of the collapse of the USSR, the US had military and economic interests in every region of the globe (interventions in Panama, Iraq)

3)Lack of support of environmental treaties (quitted the Kyoto" Protocol)

4)In 2007 03 decided to deploy anti- ,
ballistic systems in the Chech Republic and-Poland. In 2008 Obama was elected as President of the USA. His main aims in foreign policy are: he'd draw down forces in Iraq; open talks with adversaries such as Iran, Syria and Cuba; end torture and close Guantánamo; renounce unilateralism and preventive wars; rebuild ties with allies; and re-engage with the Kyoto climate change initiative. He's also pledged to halt the development of and to seek a "world without nuclear weapons." Obama would start to put the threat of terrorism in its proper perspective, elevating the importance of other threats to security, from poverty to pandemic disease to global warming. Obama promises to increase Pentagon spending, boost the size of the Army and Marines, bolster the Special Forces, expand intelligence agencies and maintain the hundreds of US military bases that dot the globe.

The structure of the Congress.

The constitution of the US grants all the legislative powers of the federal government to the Congress, which consists of two houses: the Senate and The House of Representatives.

1)The Senate is composed of two members from each state, as provided by the constitution. The 17^th amendment provided for the direct (by people) election of the senate. To be elected to the senate a person must be at least 30 years of age, a citizen of the US for at
least nine years, and a resident of the state from which he is elected. There
are 100 senators from 50 states, each senator represents his home state Senators are elected for a term of 6 years, but one third of the senate is elected every 2 years {2/3 are always experienced senators). Presiding officer
- Vise President (when he is absent senate chases a President pro tempore)

2)Membership in the House of Representatives based on a number of population, its size is- not mentioned in the constitution. To become a member of the House of Representatives a person
must be at least-25, a citizen for 7 years, and a resident of the state which he represents. 435 members (the number determined by Congress in 1913), each represents a district in his home state. The size of a district today is 530000 persons. Every state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of Representative. Representatives are elected for 2 years, in practice most members are reelected several times. Presiding officer - Speaker (2nd to the Vise president in the line of presidential succession).

Big Four – majority party leaders (Democratic and Republican) + the Speaker of the House of Representatives + the Vice-President. They maintain close contacts with the President, exercise strong influence over the making of laws and have a direct hand in the consideration of current home and foreign policy.

4.The first Europeans to arrive in North America were Vikings traveling west from Greenland. In 1001 Leif Ericson established a Norse settlement at L'Anse-aux-Meadows in northern Newfoundland in present day Canada. However, they failed to make it a permanent set­tlement and soon it was lost and forgotten.

Christopher Columbus hoped to reach Asia sailing west in 1492. Instead he landed on one of the Bahama Islands in the Caribbean Sea. Columbus never stepped on the mainland United States, but his explorations aroused tremendous interest among the Europeans. The American continent was named after Amerigo Vespucci, a noble man from Florence who helped to organize Columbus's second voyage in 1493. After Columbus, there were many expeditions organized by the Spanish, the English, the French and the Dutch.

In 1497 a navigator named John Cabot arrived in Newfoundland on a mission for the English king which later gave Britain claims to North America. In 1534 the Frenchman Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River and claimed the surrounding territory for France.

The first permanent white settlement in North America was founded at St. Augustine in Florida by the Spaniards in 1565. In 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh established the first British colony on Roanoke Island off the coast of North Carolina, but it didn't survive. In 1607 the English would try again, and this time the colony succeeded at Jamestown in Virginia, named after the English king James I. Thus a new era was opened in the colonization of North America.

By 1619 Virginia had no more than two thousand people. That year was notable for three events. One was the arrival of a ship from England with 90 "young maidens" who were to be given as wives to those settlers who would pay 120 pounds of tobacco for their transportation. Equally important was the initiation of a rep­resentative government in America. On July 30, 1619, in the Jamestown church met the first legislative assembly on the continent: a governor, six councilors, and two representatives each from ten plantations.

The third significant event of the year was the arrival in August of a Dutch ship with Negro slaves, of whom it sold twenty to the settlers. This marked the beginning of the slave trade. An important event in the colonization of North America took place in 1620 when a group of colonists known as the Pilgrim Fathers came to North America on the famous ship the Mayflower and settled at Plymouth, Massachusetts. They were separatists in England, or members of the Puritan movement wishing to purify the Church of England by making religious services simpler and discipline stricter. The Pilgrim leaders knew that in order to organ­ize their lives in the new land they had to establish rules of behavior. So 41 men aboard the Mayflower signed a special document known as the Mayflower Compact to abide by "just and equal laws" drafted by leaders of their own choosing, which was the first agreement for self-government in America. They also chose their first governor. The Puritans hoped to build an ideal society and were very in­tolerant to those who disagreed. One Puritan who disagreed was Roger Williams. Forced to leave Massachusetts Bay in 1635 he set up the neighboring Rhode Island colony where complete separation of church and state as well as freedom of religion was prac­ticed. In 1634 Maryland was settled as a refuge for Catholics and in 1681 William Penn, a wealthy Quaker received a large tract of land which became known as Pennsylvania. Here religious tolerance was practiced attracting German, Swedish and Dutch settlers. It was here he founded Philadelphia the "City of Brotherly Love". In 1626 Dutch settlers bought Manhattan Island from local Indian chiefs and built the town of New Amsterdam which in 1664 was seized by the English and renamed New York after the brother of the English king — the Duke of York. Georgia was settled in 1732, the last of the 13 colonies to be established along the Atlantic shore. The French controlled Canada and Louisiana, which included the entire Mississippi basin. The Spaniards controlled Florida.

2. The physical geography of the United States is as varied as that of any other coun­try in the world

The Coastal Plains

A lowland area sweeps from Massachusetts to Texas along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. This coastal plain, which extends for more than3,219 kilometers is divided into two parts — the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Atlantic Plain follows the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean south from Cape Cod in Massachusetts to the Florida Peninsula. The coastline is irregular. Many natural harbours have been created. Some of the more important ones are Massachusetts Bay, New York Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and Long Island Sound.

The Gulf Plain is a much wider band of flat land and gently rolling hills. It varies in width from 241 kilometers to about 966 kilometers. At one point, the plain extends far inland to where the Ohio River flows into the Mississippi River. The Mississippi, the longest river in North America, empties into the Gulf of Mexico in Southern Louisiana. There it has made a huge delta. This part of the Gulf Coastal Plain is made up of marsh­es and bayous — a word used to describe the many small, marshy creeks and rivers that flow through the delta area.

The Appalachian Highlands

Just west of the Atlantic Coastal Plain is the Appalachian Highlands. This region takes its name from the Appalachian Mountains. The highlands stretch about 1,931 kilo­meters in the United States from northern Maine to central Alabama. They lie in a north­east to southwest direction. In the highlands is the highest peak in the eastern United States — Mount Mitchell in western North Carolina. It rises 2,037 meters above sea level.

The eastern edge of the highlands is known as the Piedmont. This low plateau varies in altitude from 152 to 305 meters above sea level. West of the Piedmont are the Appalachian Mountains. They are nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast­line.

The Interior Plains

A huge "plain region" covers the middle of the United States between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rockies. The region is divided into Central Plains the Great Plains. The Central Plains include lowland parts of central and western Kentucky and Tennessee, the Great Lakes area, and the upper Mississippi and lower Ohio and Missouri river basins. West of the river basins is the area of the Great Plains. Many long rivers flow eastward from the Great Plains, emptying into the Mississippi.

The Interior Highlands

Two separate highlands regions rise above the plains in the central United States. These are the Superior Highlands and the Ozark Plateau.

Located around Lake Superior, in the northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, the Superior Highlands are actually a part of the Canadian Shield. Coniferous forests cover rocky plateaus. There are many lakes among the hills. The Ozark Plateau is located between the Missouri and Arkansas rivers west of the Mississippi River. The land is gently rolling in places with some rugged mountains in other places.

The Rocky Mountains

West of the Great Plains is the Rocky Mountain region. The Rocky Mountains extend from Canada south to New Mexico and Western Texas. The region occupies an area over 1,600 kilometers long, it varies in width between 200 to 600 kilometers.

The Rockies stretch from north to south. The Rocky Mountains are much more rugged and much higher than the Appalachians. Many peaks are over 3,658 meters high. Plants are greatly affected by altitude. Mountain tops not covered by snow are capped by tundra grasses and mosses.

Intermontane Plateaus

West of the Rocky Mountains lies an area of intermontane plateaus and basins. The term intermontane means "between mountains". The region lies between the Rocky Mountains and mountain ranges along the Pacific coast.

The intermontane area is long and broad, stretching from Washington to the border with Mexico. The moun­tains block rain, and as a result, the lowland basins are dry. Some of the most impressive landscapes in the country are found in the region. The best known is the Grand Canyon.

The Pacific Coastal Ranges

The most western of the physical regions of the conterminous United States is made up of the Pacific coast mountain ranges. Like the Rockies, they extend from Canada in the north to the border with Mexico in the south. The area is about 322 kilometers wide from east to west. It has some of the highest mountains as well as some of the richest farmland in the United States.

The interior range includes the Cascade Mountains in Washington and Oregon and the Sierra Nevada in California. Within the Sierra Nevada is Mount Whitney at 4,418 meters. Mount Rainier at 4,392 meters above sea level, is in the Cascade Range. Also in the Cascades are active volcanic peaks. Mount Helens erupted several times in recent years. Closer to the Pacific coast is a second range of mountains stretching from Washington to California.

Climate

The United States has areas of all five major climate groups.

Southern Florida has a tropical moist climate. Even in the coldest month of January, temperatures average above 21 degrees centigrade. The area has a growing season that lasts all year long.

North of the Ohio River and east of the Great Plains, there is a moist, cold winter cli­mate. South of the Great Lakes, summers are hot and winters have at least one month of average high temperatures below 0 degree centigrate. East and West of the Great Lakes, summers are cooler and winters are longer.

Most of the Great Plains is under a semiarid climate. Rainfall averages only 20 to 51 centimeters a year. The Rocky Mountains block moisture from the west. Summers are very hot and winters are very cold on the plains. The range of temperatures is greater here than anywhere else in the country.

From the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast, there are several small areas of sim­ilar climate broken up by the mountains. The highest parts of the Rockies are cold all year.

Basins in the intermontane region have a generally dry climate. This climate is found in parts of Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico as well as in western Texas and southeast­ern California. Summers are generally hot with cold winters.

The Pacific Coast is under mostly moist mild winter climates of two kinds. The coastal mountains of northern California, Oregon, and Washington cause warm winds blowing in from the Pacific to dump their moisture over these three states. These lowland coastal areas have a midlatitude marine climate.

In central and southern California, there is a Mediterranean climate. Summers are dry and winters are cool and rainy.

The climate of Alaska is generally cold over the whole state. The Yukon River valley has a moist, cold winter climate of the subarctic variety. Along the southern coast of Alaska, temperatures are milder than in the Yukon Valley. North of the Brooks Range is the only area of polar climate in the United States.

The climate of Hawaii is tropical and moist. It receives short periods of rain throughout the year. There are, however, small variations. Some areas near the coast are drier while highlands are very wet. Mt. Waialeale, on the island of Kauai, is one of the wettest spots in the world.

Rivers and Lakes

The Mississippi River, along with its tributary, the Missouri, is one of the world's longest rivers. It flows from the Rocky Mountains for nearly 6,437 kilometers to the Gulf of Mexico. One of its folk names is "father of waters. The Ohio River is another major tributary of the Mississippi together with the Arkansas River and the Red River.

Like the Mississippi, the many shorter rivers that rise east of the Appalachian Mountains empty into the Atlantic Ocean. Among them are the Hudson River, the Delaware and the Potomac.

Three great river systems drain the region west of the Rocky Mountains. They empty into the Pacific Ocean. In the north, the Columbia River and its chief tributary, the Snake River, which drains part of Idaho, Washington and Oregon. The Sacramento and its main tributary, the San Joaquin, drain much of central and northern California. The Colorado River and its many branches drain much of southwestern United States. These three river systems have great value as sources for irrigation and hydroelectric power

The Rio Grande, about 3,200 kilometers long, forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United States and is an important source of irrigation projects to the ben­efit of both countries.

The Yukon River in the north rises in the Canadian Rockies flows westward across Alaska and empties into the Bering Sea.

North America has more lakes by far than any other continent. The largest of these are the Great Lakes. They are the greatest collection of fresh water lakes in the world. Their total area is 245 thousand square kilometers. Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario form a natural border between northeastern United States and Canada. Only Lake Michigan lies entirely inside the United States. Lake Superior is the largest of the Great Lakes. It is about 563 kilometers long and 257 kilometers wide. The Great Lakes together with the Between LakeErie and Lake Ontario, on the Niagara River, which connects the two lakes, are the Niagara Falls, one of the natural wonders of the world, where the waters of the Niagara River precipitate from the height of 50 meters.

Another large group of lakes lies west of the Rockies. The most famous of these lakes are the Great Salt Lake, in Utah, and the Salton Sea lies about 80 meters below sea level in Southern California.

Mineral resources.

In resources of coal and natural gas, tungsten and molybdenum, lead and phosphorus the United States holds the first place in the world. In resources of copper, zinc and sulphur - the sec­ond. In resources of gold, silver, uranium, mercury and asbestos - the third. The United States is rich in oil, iron ore, various metallic ores. At the same time the country lacks a sufficient supply of some of the minerals required for modern industries. These must be imported into the United States. They include tin, nickel, manganese, chrome, cobalt, industrial diamonds.

The principal deposits of high-grade coals are concentrated in the eastern part of the country. The main producing areas are in the Appalachian region. Some other less important coal basins are to be found in the middle reaches of the Mississippi, in the north of the Great Plains and in the Rocky Mountains.

The chief oil-bearing area is in the southern part of the Interior Plains and the Gulf Coastal Plain. Other important oil fields are situated in the Pacific southwest (California) and the Rocky Mountains (Wyoming). Extensive oil-bearing areas have been discovered in the northern part of the Great Plains. Alaska is rich in oil and its resources are also tapped. Closely connected with oilfields are the vast deposits of natural gas (8 trillion cubic metres). However, the home resources of oil are insufficient, therefore the country is a major importer of oil from different countries of the world.

The chief deposits of iron ore are concentrated in the the region of Lake Superior. There are some deposits of iron ore in the south of the Appalachians, Birmingham, but the ores of this re­gion are of a poorer quality, having a lower iron content.

Pittsburg, in the heart of coal-fields, was the first of the great steel cities, because it was cheaper to bring the ore to the coal than the coal to the ore. Today, the Pittsburgh area still produces about one-fifth of the nation's steel, and also supplies coal to the other great steelmaking centres - Chicago, De­troit, Cleveland, Buffalo.

Large deposits of non-ferrous metals are to be found mostly on the territory to the west of the Mississippi River - zinc, copper, lead and others. Principal resources of such metals as gold, silver and rare elements are in the Cordilleras. The main deposits of uranium are in New Mexico. In the total resources of uranium die United States is after the South African Republic and Canada.

As a whole, the United States has considerable resources of mineral raw materials for the development of industry. It is self-sufficient in coal, copper, lead, phosphate, molybdenum and some others.

In terms of costs oil, coal, natural gas, uranium consitute nearly 89 per cent of the total output of the extracting industry of the United States. Iron ore and copper constitute three-fourths of the cost of all the extracted metals.

Geographical position.

The United States of America is the world's third largest country with an area of 9.6 million square kilometers, the population — over 300 million people (2007). Most of the country is in the central part of North America. It is bordered by Canada on the north and Mexico on the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Due to its geographical position and administrative division the United States is one of the few fragmented countries in the world. Of the fifty states of the country forty-eight states are conterminous, or enclosed within one common boundary. The other two states, Alaska and Hawaii, are located apart from the rest of the country. Alaska is locat­ed in the far northwestern part of North America, bordering western Canada. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean to the south and west of mainland North America. The United States occupies a favourable geographical position. The Atlantic Ocean is of great importance for the country's sea communications with Europe, Africa and South America. The sea routes to Asia and Australia pass over the Pacific Ocean. The sea route through the Panama Canal, which connects the two oceans, runs over the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.

The physical geography of the United States is as varied as that of any other coun­try in the world. There are huge forests, large areas of flat, grassy plains, and deserts. An average elevation of about 762 meters masks some great variations. These variations range from a low of 86 meters below sea level in California to a high of over 6,000 meters above sea level in Alaska.

The people of the United States are descended from many, many different groups of people from around the world. It is a country of immigrants. The first inhabitants came from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait into Alaska during the last Ice Age. Almost 40,000 years later, Spanish adventurers entered what is now the southwestern United States by way of Mexico. From that time, migrations have continued — Europeans, Africans, Asians, and other people from the Americas entering the country to live and work, adding their cultures to that of the nation.

The United States is spread over a huge area of the Western Hemisphere. For exam­ple, the total distance between the most eastern Florida Key and most western island of Hawaii is 9,418 kilometers. The conterminous United States stretches some 4,664 kilo­meters from Maine in the east to California in the west. From the northern border of North Dakota to the southern border of Texas, it is 2,585 kilometers.

It is little wonder that within a country so large there can be found so many different landscapes.

The country can be divided from the point of view of physical geography into nine regions. These are: (1) the Coastal plains, (2) the Appalachian Highlands, (3) the Interior Plains, (4) the Interior Highlands, (5) the Rocky Mountains, (6) the Intermontane Plateaus and Basins, (7) the Pacific Coastal Ranges, (8) Alaska, and (9) Hawaii.

Describe the territorial expansion of the USA in the first half of the 19th century.

The DSA having won the War of independence began to develop rapidly. In 1790 according to the census the population of the USA was nearly 4 million people. The country was growing quickly; industry was making progress, the shipping industry developed. But the main energy of the Americans was directed to the west. The Americans continued to explore and colonize the western lands. In 1803 America bought the huge territory lying west of the Mississippi and called Louisiana from France. By this purchase the territory of the US stretched to the Rocky mounts. After the war of 1812-1814 a national network of roads and cannels was built, steamboats moved along the rivers, and the first steam railroad opened in Baltimore (ML) in 1830. In 1829 Andrew Jackson became elected president of the US, he formed the Democratic party - a coalition of the farmers, workers, immigrants. Jackson supported the settlers in colonizing the western lands, and he also forced the Indian tribes to move west to the Mississippi. Thousands of the Americans were settling in Texas, which then was a part of Mexico. People were displeased with the rules of the Mexico and in 1835 formed the Republic of Texas. In 1845 the US invaded Texas and included it into the US. In may 1846 the American Congress declared war on Mexico & in 1847, the American army took Mexico city. Mexico had to give the US a huge territory - most of what is today California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico & Colorado. In 1846 the US settled a long dispute with British Canada & received the southern part of the Oregon Country - the present states of Oregon, Washington & Idaho The UA bounders now stretched from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific. In 1848 gold was discovered in California £ a great gold rush started. Thousands of settlers went to.California to find gold so the gold rush led to an intensive colonization of the west.

11.The development of the USA after the CIVIL WAR. The monroe doctrine. American expansionism at the end of the 19 century.
The victory of the North contributed to further development of the US. The country began to make great progress in the development of industry, trade, agriculture. Life in the whole country began to change rapidly. More & more immigrants began to come to America attracted by better working conditions in the towns. In the countryside the settlers could easily get land & start farming. Capitalism began to make rapid progress. In December 2, 1823, address to Congress, 'President James Monroe articulated United States' policy on the new political order. The statement, known as the Monroe Doctrine, was little noted by the Great Powers of Europe, but eventually became a longstanding tenet of U.S. foreign policy. Monroe drew upon a foundation of American diplomatic ideals such as disentanglement from European affairs and defense of neutral rights as expressed in Washington's Farewell Address and Madison's stated rationale for waging the War of 1812. The three main concepts of the doctrina- separate spheres of influence for the America and Europe, non-colonization, and non­intervention. Monroe's administration forewarned the imperial European powers against interfering in the affairs of the newly independent Latin American states or potential united States territories, While Americans generally objected to European colonies in the New World, they also desired to increase united States influence and trading ties throughout the region to their south. Monroe outlined two separate spheres of influence: the Americas and Europe. The independent lands of the Western Hemisphere would be solely the United States' domain. In exchange, the United States pledged to avoid involvement in the political affairs of Europe, and not to interfere in the existing European colonies already in the Americas.

Expansionism in America during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century shared many similarities and differences to that of previous American expansionist ideals. In both cases of American expansionism, the Americans believed that we must expand our borders in order to keep the country running upright. Also, the Americans believed that the United States was the strongest of nations, and that they could take any land they pleased. America also felt that they were more powerful than, ever, with the addition of an improving navy, turning their attention to the seas for conquer. During the earlier attempts of expansion, America had virtually no navy, which made oversea conquest out of their reach, leaving them only the surrounding areas for taking. America now had the opportunity at such territories as Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines, due to their navy and its power. Also, during the expansion of the late nineteenth century, there was much more outside resistance towards American expansion. Because of the locality of the first expansion, there were not very many disputes over land as there were when America took their hopes for land overseas. In the new expansion of the American Empire, the Americans, as they did in earlier expansion, saw themselves as only "helping" those who they took under their power. President Roosevelt thus stated this in his Annual Message to Congress of 1904, where he says, "All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous." This was also believed in expansion of the 1840's, where the U.S. pushed the Native's aside, presumably "helping" them, and making way for what rightfully belonged to the Americans, eventually dwindling the Nave American population to next to nothing.-This idea of Americans being the "end all be all" of the world, would last throughout history, nearly causing many wars and conflicts because of it. Alaska -1867.

12 describe how & when the American constitution was adopted. What caused the necessity of 'The Bill of Rights'?

A Constitution may be a defined system or body of fundamental principles according to which a nation or state is constituted or governed. A good example is the constitution of the US, formed in 1787. It is relatively brief document of some 12 pages. The constitution of the US is the source of government authority & the fundamental Law of the land. The constitutional convention which was to adopt a new constitution officially opened on May 25 1787 in Philadelphia. The 55 delegates who drafted the constitution included most of the outstanding leaders, or Founding Fathers, of the new nation. George Washington was the presiding officer. In the course of the convention the delegates created a new form of government for the US. The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central government. A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central authority & its states with some rights reserved to each. The US became federated, because after the war of independence the 13states were too weak individually to carry on the work of government. They joined together as equals for the common convenience. But each state preserved its own independence by reserving to itself certain well-defined powers (education, taxes & finance, internal communications). The powers which are usually given to a federal government are those dealing with national defense, foreign policy, the control of international trade etc. Under the constitution power was divided among the 3 branches of national government: legislative (the Congress), executive (the President) £ judicial (the Supreme Court). These 3 powers established a so-called system of checks & balances. This system gives each branch the means to restrain the other two. The Constitution provided the election of a national leader, or president. In 1789 G.Washington was unanimously elected the .first president of the US. It provided also, that federal laws would be made only by a congress consisted of representatives elected by people. The Constitution set up national court system headed be a Supreme Court. When the constitution was written in 1787 there were only 13 states. The authors of the constitution saw that the future might bring a need for changes, that is why they provide a method of adding amendments. Over the past 200 years 26 amendments have been adopted, but the constitution itself has not been changed. But when the Constitution was first proposed £ adopted, there was widespread dissatisfaction of the American people, because it did not contain guarantees of certain basic freedoms & individual rights. It also recognized slavery £ did not establish universal suffrage. Only several years later in 1791 under the strong popular pressure the congress was forced to adopt, the first 10 amendments dealing with social liberties they were called collectively the Bill of Rights. From it the Americans received guarantees of such basic rights as freedom of speech, the press & religion, the right of peaceful assembly, freedom from unreasonable search, arrest £ seizure. The Bill of rights requires that no one will be deprived for life liberty property, without due process of law £ no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself. Slavery was abolished many years later in 1865 by the 13 amendment £ universal suffrage was guaranteed in 1370 15th amendment. Since Bill of Rights 16 more amendments were adopted. But the political system created by the constitution & the Bill of rights is basically the same today as it was in 1790. Adopted in 1767 the constitution was finally ratified & came into force on March 4, 1789. Under the constitution no member of one branch may be a member of either of two others. But the president may or may not be a member of the political party with a majority in congress. No member of the Government with the exception of the Vice president (who presides Senate) may also be a member of Congress. The Congress is improved by the constitution to remove government officials, including the president, from office, only by Impeachment process. Impeachment is a charge of misconduct brought against government official or president by a legislative body. The man played the leading roles in writing the constitution - George Washington James Madison & Alexander Hamilton. Washington's participation was the most important. But truly decisive intellectual work was made by Madison. Later he was regarded as the Father of the constitution. Each state has it's own constitution. The State constitutions have a similar structure with the Constitution of the USA. As a rule they include preamble, the Bill of rights, as well as provisions dealing with local interests: the division of powers, suffrage & elections, taxes & finance, education etc.

13 Explain what is meant by a strict division £ separation of powers under the Constitution, outline the structure of the American constitution.
A Constitution may be a defined system or body of fundamental principles according to which a nation or state is constituted or governed. A good example is the constitution of the US, formed in 1787. It is relatively brief document of some 12 pages.7 articles & 26 amendments. The constitution of the US is the source of government authority & the fundamental law of the land. Under the constitution power was divided among the 3 branches of national government: legislative (the Congress}, executive (the President) t judicial (the Supreme Court).

These 3 powers established a so-called system of checks & balances. This system gives each branch the means to restrain the other two.

The Constitution provided the election of a national leader, or president It provided also, that federal laws would be made only by a congress consisted of representatives elected by people. The Constitution set up national court system headed be a Supreme Court. When the constitution was written in 1787 there were only 13 states. The drafters of the constitution saw that the future might bring a need for changes, that is why they provide a method of adding amendments. Over the past 200 years 26 amendments have been adopted, but the constitution itself has not been changed. Under the constitution no member of one branch may be a member of either of two others. But the president may or may not be a member of the political party with a majority in congress. No member of the Government with the exception of the Vice President (who presides Senate) may also be a member of Congress.

The Congress is improved by the constitution to remove government officials, including the president, from office, only by impeachment process. Impeachment is a charge of misconduct brought against government official or president by a legislative body.

Each state has it's own constitution. The State constitutions have a similar

structure with the Constitution of the USA. As a rule they include preamble, the Bill of rights, as well as provisions dealing with local interests: the division of powers, suffrage s elections, taxes c finance, education etc,