Главная Случайная страница


Категории:

ДомЗдоровьеЗоологияИнформатикаИскусствоИскусствоКомпьютерыКулинарияМаркетингМатематикаМедицинаМенеджментОбразованиеПедагогикаПитомцыПрограммированиеПроизводствоПромышленностьПсихологияРазноеРелигияСоциологияСпортСтатистикаТранспортФизикаФилософияФинансыХимияХоббиЭкологияЭкономикаЭлектроника






Changes in the system of strong and weak verbs

1) Splitting of original classes of strong Vs into subclasses:Old English New Englishrisan - ras — rison — risen rise — rose — risen

bitan- bat — biton — biten bite — bit — bitten2) Passing of some strong Vs of 1 class into another class: sprecan — spraec — spraecon — sprecen passed into another class with the forms speken — spak — speken — spoken on analogy with such Vs as stelen — stal — stelen — stolen.3) Passing of some strong verbs into the group of weak verbs & rarely vice versa: OE strong Vs climban, bacan turned into weak climb, bake. OE weak V hydan turned into strong V hide.

4) Homogenizing of forms of the weak Vs: In OE there were 3 principal forms of the weak Vs: cêpan — cêpte — cêpt (to keep) & lufian— lufode — lufod (to love)In Late ME period, with the loss of the final -e in the 2nd form, the 2nd and the 3rd form became homonymous3. Changes in grammatical categories of the V: In OE the V had 4 categories: person, number, tense & mood. In ME & NE there gradually developed 3 more gram. categories — order, voice & aspect. These gram. categories used a new gram. means for their formation - analytical forms, which developed from free word combinations of the OE Vs habban, beon/wesan + inf/participle, where the 1st element was gradually losing its lexical meaning & the 2nd - its grammatical meaning, thus tending to become notionally and grammatically inseparable.1) The category of order was the oldest, formed out of free combination habban + past participle. 2) The category of voice appeared out of the free combination of weorþan/beon) + past participle. 3) The category of aspect was formed on the basis of free combination of ben (beon) + present participle. 4) The category of tense was supplemented with a special form for the future tense. It appeared in ME out of free combination of the OE modal verbs "sculan" and "willan" + inf. 5) The category of moodin OE was represented by 3 mood forms. The subjunctive in OE didn’t show whether the events were probable or contrary to fact, but it had 2 tense forms — past and present, which in the course of history developed into 2 subjunctive moods.

 

Borrowings

1) B. from the Romance languages:

B. from French prevail in this group: diplomatic terms (attaché, etiquette); Ws belonging to the sphere of social life (ball, restaurant) economic Ws (currency, discount); art (ballet, essay); military terms (corps, marine); everyday life (blouse, menu, soup).Italian: art (scenario, profile) esp. music (finale, piano); landscape (volcano); everyday life (umbrella, macaroni)Spanish: military terms (armada, grenade); trade terms (embargo, escapade).In the majority of these Ws their foreign pronunciation is still preserved, but there are Ws that have entirely assimilated and sound like those of English origin (manage, canteen, laundry).2) B. from the Germanic languages: B. from Germanic languages are of special interest as English is a Germanic language too. Their sound form was closer to English & their assimilation progressed rapidly.

Dutch: nautical terminology (deck, freight, yacht); art (landscape, sketch).

German: scientific and cultural achievements (nickel, surplus value); military expressions (blitz, bunker, Nazi) The most peculiar feature of German influence on the English vocabulary is the creation of translation-loans on German models from native English components: English home-sickness comes from Heimweh, standpoint from Standpunkt3) B. from Russian: articles of trade & specific features of life in Russia (intelligentsia, tsar); flora & fauna (taiga, beluga); everyday life (kvass, valenki, samovar); political phenomena (decembrist, narodnic).The loan-words adopted after 1917 reflect the new social relations and political institutions in the USSR: bolshevik, Komsomol, Soviet. The new words are translation-loans: collective farm, Five-Year-Plan, wall newspaper.4) Contacts with other non-Indo-European languagesIndian: bungalow, jungle; Chinese: coolie, tea; Arabic: alcohol, chess; the language of colonizers in North America: food and agricultural phenomena: potato, tomato, chocolate, mosquito. attaché [ə'tæʃeɪ] t ['bæleɪ ['eseɪ], [kɔː], [mə'riːn] [blauz], ['menjuː] s[suːp] [sɪ'nɑːrɪəu] ['prəufaɪl] [fɪ'nɑːlɪ] pɪ'ænəu] [vɔl'keɪnəu] macaroni [ˌmæk(ə)'rəunɪ] [ɑː'mɑːdə] [grə'neɪdembargo [ɪm'bɑːgəu]canteen [kæn'tiːn] ['lɔːndrɪ] [dek], [freɪt] yacht [jɔt] ['læn(d)skeɪp] [skeʧ]['sɜːpləs] ['bʌŋkə] ['nɑːtsɪ] [ɪnˌtelɪ'ʤentsɪə][zɑː], [tsɑː]['taɪgə], [bɪ'luːgə [dɪ'sembrɪst] ['bɔlʃɪvɪk] Komsomol ['kɔmsəmɔl]['səuvɪət] ['bʌŋgələu] ['ʤʌŋgl] ['kuːlɪ] ['ælkəhɔl] [mɔs'kiːtəu]

 

7. The early stage of the development of AmE refers to the 17th-18th c., when the main characteristics of the lexicon were laid & the variant witnessed a gradual shift from phonetic, grammatical & stylistic norms of BrE. English-speaking settlers started to use borrowings from the languages of Native Americans (raccoon, [rə'kuːn]chocolate ['ʧɔklət] , potato [pə'teɪtəu]) & from neighbouring settlers: Dutch (pot cheese, deck, cruise[kruːz]),German (dumb [dʌm] ), French (portage ['pɔːtɪʤ], voyageur ['vɔɪɪʤə]), Spanish (cockroach ['kɔkrəuʧ], lasso [læ'suː]), African languages (gumbo ['gʌmbəu], voodoo ['vuːduː]The greater part of the vocabulary consisted of neologisms made up out of English language material (eggplant ['egplɑːnt], backwoods ['bækwudz], state’s attorney [ə'təːnɪ])

The 2nd period of AmE development dates to the 19th c., which is often called the period of the national growth. Neologisms of this period reflected new conditions of life connected with technological development (telegram, to phone, airline), socio-political status of the country (bulletin['bulɪtɪn] board, to lobby, congressman), education (junior / senior ['siːnɪə] high school). This period witnessed the beginning of Great Immigration Waves. The Germans were the 2nd nation after the Spanish who contributed to the development of the American vocabulary (delicatessen [ˌdelɪkə'tesn], kindergarten,).

The 3rd stage of the development of AmE dates back to the 20th c. We can single out the following means of lexical development: abbreviations (DOS, NBA, DJ); Clippings (gasoline-gas, champion-champ); Blends (cablegram, aeronautical); Compound words (square deal, hot dog); Conversion (showdown ['ʃəudaun], hangover ['hæŋˌəuvə]); Word-derivation: (suffixes cafeteria, stardom, gangster, budgeteer, cosmetician; prefixes - pro-slavery, near-accident, super-criminal, semi-panic).

1. Polysemy – the ability of words to have more than 1 meaning. Most E words are polysemantic. The semantic structure of a polysemantic W is treated as a system of meanings. (“Fire”: 1- flame, 2 - an instance of destructive burning, 3 - The shooting of guns etc). Meaning 1 is predominant while meanings 2-3 are associated with special circumstances. Meaning 1 presents the centre of the semantic structure of the W. Not in every polysemantic W such a centre can be found. Some semantic structures are arranged on a different principle. (“dull” 1- uninteresting, boring, 2 - slow in understanding, stupid, 3 - not clear or bright, 4 - not loud or distinct etc.) In this W the centre of the semantic structure can’t be generalized.

The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a W is denotative C. It expresses the conceptual content of a W. (Lonely - alone, to glance – to look). To give a fuller picture of the meaning of a W, it is necessary to include additional semantic components, which are termed connotations, or connotative C. (Lonely = DC (alone, without company) + CC (melancholic, sad)). By singling out DC & CC one can get a clear picture of what the W really means. Speaking about changes the semantic structure of the W undergoes it’s important to mention that they are mostly historical. Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, culture, technology & arts alter the meaning of words or add new meanings to existing Ws as newly created objects, new concepts and phenomena have to be named. There are a few types of these changes:

1) The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is termed transference. 2 types of T are distinguishable: T based on resemblance: linguistic metaphor (the neck of the bottle, the legs of the table, a branch of linguistics) & T based on contiguity: linguistic metonymy (glad meant bright, shining, the other meaning developed as the result of associations). 2) Broadening of meaning: to arrive meant "to come to shore, to land". In Modern E it has greatly widened & developed the general meaning "to come". 3) Narrowing: girl: In Mid E it had the meaning of "a small child of either sex". the word developed the meaning of "a small child of the female sex".4) Elevation: when a lexeme develops a “+” sense. Knight meant a boy, now- a noble man.

5) Degradation: when a lexeme develops a “-“ sense. Villain meant a person working on a villa, now – a negative character.

3 Phraseological unit - the term used by Russian scholars (equal to the term «idiom» in Western studies). According to Prof. Kunin PUs are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket") There is no unified classification of PUs, different linguists suggest different approaches.
1) The traditional principle for classifying PU is based on their original content. According to this principle, PU are classified according to their sources of origin, "source" referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of natural phenomena, etc. L. P. Smith gives groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters in his classification. He points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Most of them have no association with the sea or sailors. (To be in the same boat with somebody — to be in a situation in which people share the same difficulties).
2) Another type of classification based on the meaning of PU is suggested by Vinogradov. He pointed out 3 types of phraseological units: a) fusions – highly idiomatic, cannot be translated word for word into other languages, (on Shank’s mare - on foot, at sixes and sevens - in a mess); b) unities - the meaning of the whole phrase can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it’s metaphorical (to play the first fiddle - to be a leader in smth); c) collocations – words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages (cash and carry - self-service shop, in a big way - in great degree)
3) The classification system of PU suggested by Prof. Kunin is based on the combined structural-semantic principle. PU are subdivided into 4 classes according to their function in communication determined by their structural-semantic characteristics: a) nominative PU - word-groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type (wear and tear, well and good). also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, such as as the crow flies, and, also, predicative phrases of the type (see how the land lies, ships that pass in the night). b) nominative-communicative PU include verbal word-groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice (the ice is broken); c) communicative PU are represented by proverbs, sayings (There is no smoke without fire.); d) PU which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word-groups (As sure as eggs is eggs).

2.Synonyms – words of the same category of part of speech conveying the same concept, but different either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. Their function is revealing different aspects, shades and variations of the same phenomenon.According to classification established by Vinogradov there are 3 types of synonyms: 1) ideographic - words conveying the same concept, but different in the shades of meaning; 2) Stylistic - words different in stylistic characteristics; 3) Absolute – the same in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics.

Another approach to the classification of synonyms is based on the definition of synonyms as words differing in connotations:1) C of degree (or intensity):To surprise-to astonish-to amaze2) С of duration:To stare – to glare – to gaze – to peep 3) emotive C: alone – single – lonely – solitary4) evaluative C:well-known-famous-notorious-celebrated5) causative C: to shiver (with cold) – to shudder (with fear) 6) C of manner: to stroll-to stride-to trot-to pace-to swagger 7) С of attendant features:pretty (small delicate features) – handsome – beautiful(perfect figure) 8) stylistic C:to leave-to be off-to clear out-to beat it-to depart-to withdraw.All synonymic groups have a central word - its meaning is equal denotation common to all synonyms in the group. This word is called the dominant synonym: to produce – to create – to fabricate – to make – to manufacture. Characteristic features of the dominant synonyms: high-frequency of usage; broad combinability; broad general meaning; lack of connotation.

There arewords, which people instinctively avoid because they are considered rude, impolite. Such words can be substituted by euphemisms.(toilet – powder-room, washroom, restroom, retiring-room, (public) comfort station, lady’s (room), gentlemen’s (room).E may be used due to genuine concern not to hurt someone’s feelings or to avoid the so-called social taboos.

Antonyms - words of the same category of parts of speech, which have contrasting meanings. If synonyms form whole, often numerous, groups, antonyms are usually believed to appear in pairs. There are exceptions: cold may have warm as its 2nd antonym. A polysemantic word may have several A for each of its meanings (dull - interesting, amusing, entertaining clever, bright, capable)

S & A also represent expressive means. can be used as a SD of contrast:

 

4. Neologisms.Eng. vocabulary is not a stable finite collection of words. New words & expressions are continuously coming into use. Such words are called neologisms. Important characteristics of N: the period of time they are used for, connotation of newness & the recognition by the speakers.(Obamania appeared in 2008 during the elections of the president Barac Obama however nowadays this word has lost the connotation of newness. It became part of the common Eng. vocabulary.) The main source of N is technological progress (Internet, TV, mobile phones). In the past it would take years for a word to become common currency; these days a word can make its way onto a dictionary in a few months. So the main impact of the Internet lies not only in the number of new words but also in the speed with which they are spread. (googlegangera person who has the same name and is discovered by doing a search on your name using the google Internet search engine; newbie - someone new and inexperienced) The financial and economic crises – (recessionista – a person who dresses stylishly on a tight budget; choconomic – to drive to chickness through effective economic crisis). Politics Obamania. Ecology – (precycling – buying particular products based on how recyclable and eco-friendly they are).Ways of building new vocabulary: 1) Vocabulary extension - the appearance of new lexical items; 2) semantic extension - the appearance of new meanings of existing words (mouse, virus); 3) borrowings (tsunami).In ME the most effective ways are productive ways of word-formation – when new words are made up of already available ones. Compound-words: fun-employment (word-composition) – a period of joblessness that a person uses for leisure; Affixation: cyber-terrorism, nano-industry. Conversion: text - to text; google - to google; Blending: (Frankenstein+ food) – GM food; informercial (information+commercial).

18.1. The notion of ‘grammatical meaning’. The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexicalmeaning is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning ofthingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass –countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities.
There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc. The grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicitgrammatical meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the word table does not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The explicitgrammatical meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In the word cats the grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun; cat’s – here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical meaning of passiveness.

21. It is well known fact that the notional parts of the sentence form together the nominative meaning of the sentence. The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the nominative division a long side of nominative division. The idea of the actual division has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. Its purpose is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance. The main components of the actual division are the “theme” and the “rheme”. Theme expresses the starting point of the communication. Rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication. Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary parts of the actual division. The theme may or may not coincide with the subject of the sentence. The rheme with a predicate. The actual division finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech. If it is stylistically neutral construction the theme is the subject and the rheme is the predicate and this kind of actual division is direct. The actual division in which the rheme is expressed by the subject is inverted. The means of expressing the rheme: Lexical meanings – particles (only,even), Logical stress, Change of syntactic structure (It was he who did it), Passive voice. Means of expressing theme. Definite article., Word order.

19 The theory of the article still remains doubtful: is the article a separate part of speech? Is the article a word or a morpheme? Does the article have a meaning?Form: morphologically unchangeable. Function: Expresses the category of definiteness / indefiniteness. Combinability: In the sentence it combines only with the noun and it is never a separate part of the sentence. (the poor, the rich, the wounded, the unemployed.- the process of substantivization.)The def. article is a limiting article. It shows that the object is taken in its concrete individual quality. The indef. article is used to refer a thing to a certain class of a similar things. It expresses classifying generalization and it is called “a classifying article”. The 0 article is the absence of the article which has a group meaning. It is used with certain groups of nouns. (material nouns, abstract nouns, nouns in the plural taken in a general sense.) Omission of the article: The article is omitted for stylistic purposes. (in newspaper headings, in author’s remarks in plays, in dictionaries, in telegrams, in calendars.) In all these cases the omission of the article doesn’t change the meaning expressed. Meaning:The article has a grammatical meaning. By changing the article we change the meaning of the sentence: 1) He knocked at the door and a voice answered. 2) a door, the voice. 3) the door, the voice 4) a door, a voice. The meaning of the article presents a problem. Some linguists say that article has ONE meaning. The others consider that there are more than One meaning. Prof. Ilyish states that each meaning appears in different contexts (The dog has come home. The dog is a domestic animal.)

 

20. The Statives.Such words as asleep, ablaze, afloat, astir, aloof, afire etc, have always been considered adj, though they: a) can’t (apart from a few special cases) be attributes in a sentence, b) their meaning is not property, c) they don’t have the category of degrees of comparison. Some linguists believe that they constitute a special part of speech, which may be called “stative” & is characterized by the prefix a -. Functions: 1) predicative (preceded by link verbs: be, fall, keep, feel. (The child fell asleep. The house is astir.) 2) objective predicatives (He found her alone)The existence of statives as a separate part of speech is not universally recognized in the English language. Prof-s Barkhudarov & Blokh deny the existence of statives in English on the following grounds: 1) the meaning of “state” is a special variety of the meaning of “property” typical of adjectives, 2) words of this category can be preceded by the word MORE: (More ashamed), 3) they can be modified by adverbs (Painfully alive) & by prepositional phrases (Alive with stars).

However there is nothing to prove that the notion of “state” cannot be the foundation of a separate part of speech.

10. ЧтениеЧт-рецептивный вид речевой деятельности, рецептивная форма речевого общения. Чт как цель - науч уч-ся извлекать инф из текста в том объёме, кот необходим для реш конкретн реч задачи, используя опред технологии чт. Чтение тж может выступать и как ср-во формир и контроля смежн реч умений и яз нав, т.к.: 1) использ-е чтения позволяет уч-ся оптимизир процесс усвоения языкового и реч матер; 2) коммуникат-ориентир задания на контроль лекс, грамм, аудир, письма, устной речи предполаг умение читать и строятся на основе письм текстов 3) упражнения на отраб всех языковых и реч нав и умен тж строятся с опорами на текст. Виды чтения: 1) аналитич (полное понимание, анализ текста) 2) изучающ (полное и точное поним всех основных и второст фактов, их осмысление и запомин) 3) просмотровое (просмотр текста с целью выяснить, содержит ли этот текст полезную читателю инф) 4) поисковое (просмотр текста с целью найти конкретную инф) 5) ознакомительное (Текст прочитывается как можно быстрее с целью понять основное содержание). Некотор методисты не согл с такой классф, в частн Е. Пассов выдел только изучающее и поисковое. В отеч и зарубежн методике разработаны основные требования к текстам при их отборе:аутентичность, соответствие коммун-познав интересам и потребоностям, наполнение страноведч и социокульт инф,соответствие по сложн язык и речев опыту учащихся,разнообразие типов текстов,жанров и функц стилей,наличие прагматич типов текстов,воспитат ценность,графич оформл текста и его иллюстр-остью. 2 взаимосвязанных и неразлож процесса:техника чт и понимание читаемого.Овладение тех навыков чт предполагае овладение графемно-фонемными соотв и структурно-иформ связями.Цель-обеспечить учащ видение структуры читаемого и через неё поним инф.обилие текстов-важное условие формир тех навыков и рецепт умений.Формир тех навыков чт сопряжено с преодол учащ тредностей интерференции,проблема слогообраз, ударения и др.Развитие умений понимания читаемого осущ в процессе чтения текстов разл типов,разд три этапа:1) дотекстовый (предварить содер текста,испол подсказки,рисунки схемы ) 2) текстовый(погружение в текст,выведение грамм и лекс явлений 3) послетекстовый –использ задания для развития умений в говор и письм речи

 

Говорение

Говорение–вид реч деятельности,который реализ в процессе устной формы общения.Осн. механизмы Г-речевой слух, память,вероятностное прогнозирование,понимание.Гиспользуется как эффективное средсво для формир фонетич,лексич,грамм навыковю Обуч связ с развитием умений монолог и диалог речи. Мон речь-опред как одностореннее,равернутое,достаточн продолж, обращение к слушателям высказывание.М-продукт индивид построения.Характеристики М: целенаправленность/ соответствие речевой задаче; непрерывный характер; логичность; смысловая законченность; самостоятельность; выразительность.Диалог-рассматривается как форма социального-реч общения,как основа сотрудн и взаимопон между людьми в процессе свомест деятельности.Хар-ки диалога: реактивность; ситуативность.В методике обуч Говорению(диал/монол речи)различают понятия подготовленной/неподготовленной речи и продуктив/непродукт речи(зауч сообщения/реплики/,продукт речь отлич креативностью,самост опред замысла,формы,содер)Также в методике опред два подхода:путь «сверху вниз» и «снизу вверх». Сверху вниз Предполагает развит монологич навыков на основе прочит текста. Путь имеет ряд преим. текст достат полно созд реч сит, учит не нужно самому её создав. При использ этого вида обуч учащ-ся составляют мини-монологи. Напр предвосхищ содержание текста, комментируя заголовок. Задания после прочтения текста предполаг более продолжит высказ. Грамотно подобр текст имеет высок степень инфоративн, при этом речевые высказ учащ способств реализ образовательных целей обуч. Снизу вверх Навыки развив без опоры на текст. Опора только на тематику и проблематику, на изученную лексику и грамматику и на речевые структуры. Используется на начальном этапе, когда ученики не могут хорошо читать и когда учебный текст ещё слишком мал. 1)При использ этого способа учит должен убедиться, что у учащ-ся есть достаточн информ запас по данной теме. 2) Убедиться, что уровень яз достаточен для успешного выполн данной зад.. Кроме того, учащ-ся должны уметь связ речев высказ, владеть дискурсивными приёмами и т.д.

 

 

12. ПисьмоВ лингвистике письмо – это граф система как одна из форм плана выражения. В методике под П понимается овладение учащимися графич и орфографич системами языка для фиксации речевого и языкового мат в целях его лучшего запоминания и в кач-ве вспомогат ср-ва для овладения устной речью и чтением. Цель обучения П в данном контексте — научить учащ писать на ин яз те же тексты, которые образованный человек умеет писать на родном языке.При обуч лексике, грамматике, фонетике невозможно обойтись без записей слов, списывания структур, правил и т. д. Выполн многих заданий по формир чисто речевых навыков уст речи невозможно без использ навыков П. При этом письмо яв-ся не целью, а лишь средством обученияНа разн этапах обуч ИЯ в СОШ содер обучения письму меняется в плане усложнения. Так в нач школе формир элементарн умения использ П,опис несложные рисунки в учебнике и др.По оконч обучу чащ должны уметь написать личное и офиц письмо,сочинение,аннотацию,реферат,заполн анкеты и др.Цель реализуется в форме конкретных умений письм речи,осн кот яв-ся техн навыки П.Техн навыки П вкл навыки каллиграфии,графики,орфогр и пунктуации.Формир навыков кал-фии и граф осущ в нач школе, закладыв основы формир навык орфогр на этом этапе. Типологические группы написания слов и возможные трудности: 1)написание на основе фонетического принципа (кол-во букв = кол-ву звуков); 2) Слова, которые пишутся с буквами, не имеющими звукового эквивалента. В англ яз очень много. Снимать трудности: объяснять правила чтения. Учить слова-исключения. 3) Трудные, словарные слова. Объяснить нельзя, можно только учить. Чаще всего это очень старые слова с древним корнем. Технология обуч письм выражению мыслей традиц осущ с помощью подгот и речевых упр,напр трансформации, расширение предложений,эквивал замены,выбор перевод и др. Обуч разл формам записи: Упр 1) списывание с дополнительным заданием (раскрыть скобки, вставить проп слова) 2) Выписывание из текста или записыван со слуха при прослуш текста. 3) Упр на трансформацию: перефразировать; передать одну и ту же мысль разн спос Обуч напис разл письм текстов: К оконч школы учащиеся должны владеть навыками напис различных типов текстов: резюме;; уметь заполнять бланки; письма и статьи в молодежные журналы или газ; написание реценз на книгу или фильм; Задача учит – найти или разработать опоры для напис этих текстов для учеников.

11. Контроль - важная составная часть учебного процесса. Цель К. — определение уровня успешности учащихся в овладении ими коммуникативной компетенцией за определенный период обучения. К. - один из основных источников информации об учебном процессе.К. в обучении ИЯ-у должен быть конструктивным, надежным, валидным, практичным и информативным. К. выполняет следующие функции: Диагностическую, корректирующую, контролирующую, управленческую, обучающую, оценочную, стимулирующую, планирующую, развивающую, воспитывающую. Осн объектами контроля являются репродукт и рецепт речевые умения как основа речевой компетенции, языковые навыки (фонетие, лексич, грамм) как основа языковой комп. Различают формальный (итоговый), неформальный (предварительный) виды контроля. По форме контроль может быть: индивид, фронтальн, группов, парным. В заруб и отечеств практике широко использ тесты как средство контроля.Тесты рассматр как система заданий, выполнение которых позволяет выявить и оценить уровень владения языком с помощью специальной шкалы результатов. Чаще всего используются следующие виды тестовых заданий:1) перекрестный выбор (matching); 2)альтернативный выбор (true-false); 3) множественный выбор (multiple choice); 4) упорядочение (rearrangement); 5) завершение\окончание (completion); и др.. Примером таких тестов являются контрольно-измерительные материалы, используемые в едином гос-м экзамене по иностранному языку (ЕГЭ). Содер компонент ЕГЭ разработан в полном соответствии со школьной программой по ИЯ. Структурно ЕГЭ включает на данном этапе т аудирование, чтение, грамм и лексика и письмо. В каждом разделе определено количество заданий и время их выполнения. Это: соответствие содержанию обучения, использование типов заданий разных уровней сложности.Тестовая методика используется в международных экзаменах, в том числе для школьников напр в Великобрит KeyHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/ket.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/ket.html"EnglishHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/ket.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/ket.html"Test,PreliminaryHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/pet.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/pet.html"EnglishHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/pet.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/pet.html"Test,FirstHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/fce.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/fce.html"CertificateHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/fce.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/fce.html"inHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/fce.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/fce.html"English,CertificateHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cae.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cae.html"inHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cae.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cae.html"AdvancedHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cae.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cae.html"English,CertificateHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html"ofHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html"ProficiencyHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html"inHYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html" HYPERLINK "http://english.language.ru/cambridge/cpe.html"EnglishПри разработке Европейской системы уровней проводились обширные исследования в разных странах, методики оценки опробовались на практике. Существует 6 крупных уровней, которые представляют собой более низкие и более высокие подуровни в классической трехуровневой системе, включающей в себя базовый, средний и продвинутые уровни. Схема уровней построена по принципу последовательного разветвления. Она начинается с разделения системы уровней на три крупных уровня - А, В и С

 

15. Individual style - a unique combination of language units, EM & SD peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. IS allows certain justifiable deviations from the rigorous norms.Linguistic analysis refers to the scientific analysis of a language sample. It involves at least 1 of the 5 main branches of linguistics, which are phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics. The purpose of Stylistic analysis is to observe the interaction of form and meter, to see how through the infinite variety of SD & their functions, the message is brought to the reader. The problem of stylistic context is closely connected with the stylistic analysis. There are 2 types of stylistic context: narrow & broad. In many cases the message of the author m/b understood only if the broad C is taken into account.

Decoding stylistics - the most recent trend in stylistic research which employs theoretical findings in such areas as psychology, literary criticism, information theory, history of art & others. DS goes beyond traditional analysis - it makes an attempt to regard the aesthetic value of the text based on the interaction of specific textual elements, SD & compositional structure in delivering the author’s message. This method doesn’t consider the stylistic function of any stylistically imp-t feature separately, but only as a part of the whole text. So, EM & SD are treated in their interaction in the text as carious of the author’s purpose. DS helps to understand a literary word by explaining or decoding the information hidden from the immediate view in specific allusions, cultural or political parallels, peculiar use of irony, euphemism, etc. Process opposite to decoding is encoding:1) the author receives diverse information 2) some of this information becomes a source for his creative work 3) he processes this information and recreates it in his own aesthetic images that pass his vision to the addressive – the reader. The process of encoding makes sense only if there is a recipient or the addressive (=reader). The reader is supposed to decode this inf-n. The message encoded and sent m/differ from the message received after decoding. There are many differences between the author and the reader and they are inevitable. They m/b separated by historical epochs, social conventions, religious and political views, cultural and national traditions. Moreover, even if the author and the reader belong to the same society, no reader can completely identify himself with the author emotionally, intellectually or aesthetically.

 

13.When, we perceive 2 meanings of a word simultaneously, we are confronted with aStylistic Devicein which 2 meanings interact. 1) Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings: Metaphor - transference of some quality from 1 object to another. M. becomes a SD when 2 different phenomena (things, ideas) are simultaneously brought to mind. (“Dear Natureis the kindest Mother still” the notion Mother arouses in the mind the actions of nursing, caring for, etc)Metonymyis based on some kind of association connecting the 2 concepts.(cup or glass m/standfor 'will you have another cup?”)'. Irony is based on the simultaneous realization of 2 logical m-gs - dictionary and contextual ones, but the 2 m-gs stand in opposition to each other ("It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket." The word delightful acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary m-g) I. must not be confused with humour, I. is generally used to convey a negative meaning. 2) Interaction of primary, derivative logical meanings: Zeugma- the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to 2 adjacent words in the context. Z. is a kind of economy of syntactical units: 1 unit (word, phrase) makes a combination with 2 or several others without being repeated itself. (He took his hat and his leave.) Punis based on the interaction of 2 well-known m-gs of a word or phrase. P. is more independent than Z. (It is not my principle to pay the interest, and it is not my interest to pay the principal.) 3) Interaction of logical and emotive meanings: Epithetis based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word or phrase used to characterize an object. in 'wild wind', 'loud ocean', 'heart-burning smile', the adj don’t point to inherent qualities of the objects described - they are subjectively evaluative. Oxymoronis a combination of 2 words in which the m-gs of the 2 clash, they are opposite in sense ('horribly beautiful', 'a deafening silence'). 4) Interaction of logical and nominative meanings: Antonomasia -the interplay between the logical and nominal m-gs of a word. Miss Blue-Eyes or Mr. Zero may be called telling names. They give information about the bearer of the name. A. is intended to point out the leading, most characteristic feature of a person. Periphrasis - the use of a longer phrasing instead of a possible shorter form of expression. As SD, P. aims at pointing to 1 of the seemingly insignificant or barely noticeable features of the object, and intensifies this property by naming the object by the property (a woman of few ideas with an immense power of concentration).Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word by more acceptable 1 (to die - to depart, to join the majority, to kick the bucket, to go west). Hyperbole intensifies 1 certain property of the object. It is exaggeration of a feature essential to the object carried to an illogical degree (He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face).

14. Vocabulary classification. Skrebnev’s classification:

1) elevated words (maximal – highly poetic (morn), medium – expressively bookish (sagacity), minimal – slightly bookish (to prevail)); 2) neutral W; 3) degraded W. (maximal – W rejected by morals (****), medial – offensive W (bloody), minimal – close to neutral (cheeky)).

Galperin’s classification: 1) Literary layer - markedly bookish character. It includes: 1) terms & learned W – associated w/science (linguistics), 2) poetic W – used in poetry to create certain atmosphere, usually archaic (quoth), 3) archaic W (obsolescent W– rarely used but widely recognized (palfrey), obsolete W– no longer used but are still recognized (nay), archaic proper – no longer used and not recognized (troth), historical terms – used only in historical novels (baldric)), 4) barbarisms & foreignisms – W of foreign origin which haven’t entirely been assimilated (chic), 5) literary coinages (terminological C – denote newborn concepts, stylistic C – made by writers (I’m wived in Texas)). 2) Colloquial layer - lively spoken character. It includes: 1) slang – phonetically, morphologically or lexically mispronounced W (wassup), 2) jargonisms – preserve secrecy within a social group (nutty - pleasing), 3) professionalisms – used in a certain profession (tinfish - submarine), 4) dialectal W – used only in a certain locality (hinny – honey), 5) vulgarisms – offensive W (damn). 3) Neutral layer - universal character. It is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. There are also 2 sublayers: common literary W. & common colloquial W. Language varieties according to D. Chrystal: 1) Regional V – reflect the geographical origin of the language (BrE, AmE), 2) Social V – reflect social status, background, education of the speaker (upper class), 3) Occupational V – reflect the professional sphere where the language is used (religious E, political E), 4) Individual V – reflect speech preferences of the speaker – habitual W & phrases.

 

16. Functional styles - the types of texts, which are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication. It

is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.- Galperin distinguishes 5 FS:1) The belles-letres FS subdivided into: a) the l-ge style of poetry; b) of emotive prose; c) of drama.2) The publicistic FS subdivided into: a) of oratory; b) of essays; c) of feature articles in newspapers.

3) The newspaper FS falls into a) of brief news items; b) of newspaper headings; c) of notices & advertisements.

4) The scientific prose FS subdivided into: a) of humanitarian sciences; b) of "exact"sciences; c) of popular scientific prose. 5) The official document FS divided into: a) of diplomatic documents; b) of business documents; c) of legal documents; d) of military documents.Prof. Galperin includes in his classification only the written variety of language – in his opinion style is the result of creative activity of a writer & there is no stylistic intention on the part of the speakers in colloquial speech. He ignores the fact that it is not important for the hearer (reader) whether creative energy is employed or not, the reader will see the difference between a poetic line and an everyday utterance. That’s why many linguists don’t agree with such classification.

- Arnold singles out 3 styles: neutral, literary, colloquial. - Skrebnev considers that the number of sublanguages & styles is infinite. But since scholars usually strive for generalization they will be always trying to form more or less large units and call them styles.- Chrystalsingles out language varieties:1) Regional V – reflect the geographical origin of the language (BrE, AmE), 2) Social V – reflect social status, background, education of the speaker (upper class), 3) Occupational V – reflect the professional sphere where the language is used (religious E, political E), 4) Individual V – reflect speech preferences of the speaker – habitual W & phrases.

 

17. Syntactical SD. 1) Syntactical SD Based on Peculiar Syntactical Arrangement: Stylistic Inversion - any change of W order which doesn't influence the meaning but is only aimed at emphasis & attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. (My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall). Detached constructions – based on singing out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of intonation (She was gone. For good). Parallel construction - may be encountered in the macrostructures dealt with the syntactical whole & the paragraph. The necessary condition in PC is identical or similar, syntactical structure in 2 or more sentences/parts of sentence. Chiasmus - based on repetition of syntactical patterns, but it has a reversed order in 1 of the utterances. (She was a good sport about all this, but so was he). Suspense - the separation of the Predicate from the Subject by deliberate introduction between them of a clause or a sentence. Thus the reader's interest is held up. Climax (gradation) - an ascending series of W or utterances in which intensity or significance increases step by step. (Every racing car, every racer, every mechanic, every ice-cream van was also plastered with advertising). 2) SD Based on Stylistic Use of Structural Meaning: Rhetorical question - asked in order to make a statement rather than to get a reply ("If practice makes perfect, and no one's perfect, then why practice?") 3) SD Based on Peculiar Use of Colloquial Constructions: Ellipsis - the omition of a W necessary for the complete syntactical construction of a sentence, but not necessary for understanding. (You feel all right? Anything wrong or what?) Aposiopesis (Break-in-the narrative) - Sudden break in the narration - to reveal agitated state of the speaker.(On the hall table there were a couple of letters addressed to her. One was the bill. The other...) Question-in-the narrative - asked & answered by 1 and the same person, usually the author. (For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush - for Greece a tear.)

4) Syntactical Stylistic Devices Based on Peculiar Linkage: Asyndeton - a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in constructions in which they would normally used. (He couldn't go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated hotels). Polysyndeton - an identical repetition of conjunctions: used to emphasize simultaneousness of described actions (The heaviest rain, & snow, & hail, & sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect).

 

Последнее изменение этой страницы: 2016-06-09

lectmania.ru. Все права принадлежат авторам данных материалов. В случае нарушения авторского права напишите нам сюда...