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WORD - COMPOSITION. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND WORDS

Word-composition is type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern English, the other two are conversion and affixation. The great variety of compound types brings about a great variety of classifications.

The great variety of compound types brings about a great variety of classifications. Compound words may be classified according: 1) to the type of composition and the linking elements; 2) according to the part of speech, to which the compound belongs to; 3) according to the structural pattern. It is also possible to subdivide compounds according to other characteristics.

The classification according the type of composition permits us to establish the following groups:

1) The predominant type is juxtaposition without connecting elements: heartache n; heart-beat; heart-broken adj.; heart-breaking adj;

2) Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The examples are very few: electromotiveadj.; speedometer n; Afro-Asian adj; statesman n.

3) Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stems: down-and-out n; matter-of-fact adj.; son-in-law n; up-and-up adv.; up-to-date adj.

There are also a few other lexicalized phrases like devil-may care adj.; forget-me-not; pick-me-up n.

The classification of compounds according to the structure of immediate constituents distinguishes:

1) compounds consisting of simple stems: film-star;

2) compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem: chair-smoker.

3) Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem: maths-mistress (in Brit.English) and math-mistress (in American Eng.). The subgroup will contain abbreviations like H-bag (handbag) or Xmas (Christmas), but the first is not used in spoken language, and the second is considered sub-standard;

4) Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem: wastepaper – basket.

22. Synonyms are two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts. These words are distinguished by different shades of meaning, connotations and stylistic features.

Synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means. The principal function of synonyms is to represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations. Synonyms add precision to each detail of description and the correct choice of a word from a group of synonyms may colour the whole text.

The duality of synonyms is, probably, their most confusing feature: they are somewhat the same, and yet they are most obviously different. Both aspects of their dual characteristics are essential for them to perform their function in speech: revealing different aspects, shades and variations of the same phenomenon.

"- Was she a pretty girl?

- I would certainly have called her attractive."

The second speaker in this short dialogue does his best to choose the word which

would describe the girl most precisely: she was good-looking, but pretty is probably too good a word for her, so that attractive is again in a way opposed to pretty (not pretty, only attractive), but this opposition is, at the same time, firmly fixed on the sameness of pretty and attractive: essentially they both describe a pleasant appearance.

The synonymic dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group. The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent.

The following characteristic features of the dominant synonym can be underlined:

1) High frequency of usage.

2) Broad combinability, i. e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words.

3) Broad general meaning.

4) Lack of connotations. (This goes for stylistic connotations as well, so that neutrality as to style is also a typical feature of the dominant synonym.)

The semantic difference between two or more synonyms is supported by the difference in valency. An example of this is offered by the verbs win and gain. Both may be used in combination with the noun victory: to win a victory, to gain a victory. But with the word war only win is possible: to win a war.

Criteria of Synonymy

Not a single definition of the term synonym provides for any objective criterion of similarity or sameness of meaning as far as it is based on the linguistic intuition of the scholars.

Many scholars defined synonyms as words conveying the same notion but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. In "Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms" its authors used the semantic criterion along with the criterion of interchangeability5, which we may see from the definition.

A synonym is one of two or more words which have the same or nearly the same essential6 (denotational) meaning. It is not a matter of mere likeness in meaning, but a likeness in denotation which may be expressed in its definition. The definition must indicate7 the part of speech and the relations of the ideas involved in a term's meaning.

Synonyms, therefore, are only such words as may be defined wholly8 or almost wholly in the same terms. Usually, they are distinguished from one another by an added implication or connotation, or may differ in their idiomatic use or in their implication9.

They usually are interchangeable within limits, but interchangeability is not the final test, since idiomatic usage is often a preventive of that. The only satisfactory test of synonyms is their agreement in connotation.

ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS

Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. As the result, we have two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. In English there are some groups of them:

Latino-French doublets.

Latin English from Latin English from French

uncia inch ounce

moneta mint money

camera camera chamber

Franco-French doublets

doublets borrowed from different dialects of French.

Norman Paris

canal channel

captain chieftain

catch chaise

Scandinavian-English doublets

Scandinavian English

skirt shirt

scabby shabby

There are also etymological doublets which were borrowed from the same language during different historical periods, such as French doublets: gentil - любезный, благородный, etymological doublets are: gentle - мягкий, вежливый and genteel - благородный. From the French word gallant etymological doublets are : ‘gallant - храбрый and ga’llant - галантный, внимательный.

Sometimes etymological doublets are the result of borrowing different grammatical forms of the same word, e.g. the Comparative degree of Latin «super» was «superior» which was borrowed into English with the meaning «high in some quality or rank». The Superlative degree (Latin «supremus»)in English «supreme» with the meaning «outstanding», «prominent». So «superior» and «supreme» are etymological doublets.

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