Unit IV. Special Educational Needs

Unit IV. Special Educational Needs

I.1. The text is entitled “Special Educational Needs”. Judging by the title what do you think it is about?

2. Pay attention to the following abbreviations used in the text:

SEN- Special Educational Needs;

LEA- Local Educational Authorities;

FE- Further Education;

HE- Higher Education

3. Pay attention to the following active words and word combinations used in the text:

significant - важный, достойный;

to amend - вносить поправки, исправлять, улучшать;

appropriate - соответствующий, свойственный, присущий;

exclude - исключать, не допускать возможности;

caveat - ограничивающее предупреждение;

a scope - кругозор, сфера деятельности, компетенция;

incompatible - несовместимый;

to enhance - добавлять, менять к лучшему;

self-esteem - самостоятельность, реализация амбиций;

a peer - ровня;

a goal - цель;

to set out a duty – устанавливать обязанность;

statutory assessment - установленная законом сумма обложения;

to tighten up - тесно связывать;

to impose a fine - накладывать штраф;

to appeal - подавать исковое заявление в суд;

to praise - хвалить;

implementation - использование орудий, инструментов и принадлежностей;

to extend - расширять, распространять влияние;

а remit - прощение или смягчение приговора, передача дела в др.инстанцию, перенос рассмотрения дела на более поздний срок;

substantial disadvantage - существенный недостаток, вред, убыток;

an access - доступ, подход;

a proprietor - владелец, собственник, хозяин;

justification - оправдание, реабилитация;

an extent - протяжение, пространство, степень;

to negate - отрицать, отвергать;

an impact - смысл, внутреннее содержание;

to come into force - вступать в силу, начинать действовать;

to make links - соединять;

to issue - издавать, привносить новшества;

a conciliation service - примирение, замирение, умиротворение;

a draft - план, проект, набросок;

dexterity - ловкость, проворство, сноровка;

continence - сдержанность, целомудрие, воздержание;

disfigurement - уродство, искажение.

4. Find English equivalents to the following Russian expressions:

-дети с особыми образовательными потребностями;

-дети с ограниченными возможностями;

-иметь влияние на ч.-л.;

-предложения по правовому урегулированию;

-отвечать запросам и нуждам;

- вопреки желаниям;

-издавать установленные законом руководства к действию;

-ограничивать использование;

-труднообучаемые дети;

-более способные дети;

-ставить разумные задачи при планировании урока;

-личные успехи;

-стиль обучения;

-родительский совет;

-разрешать конфликт;

-устанавливать временные рамки;

-незаконный;

-относиться предвзято к детям с ограниченными возможностями;

-обеспечивать дополнительной поддержкой;

-необходимость проведения занятий;

-финансовые возможности;

-затраты;

-интересы др.студентов;

-нейтралитет;

-одинаковые возможности;

-осознание инстинкта самосохранения;

- социальная составляющая определения.

Use dictionary if necessary.

II. 1. Read the text”SEN”.

I

The SEN and Disability Act 2001 make significant changes to the educational opportunities available to disabled children and students and those with special educational needs. The Act affects LEAs, nurseries (with public funding), schools, including independent and non-maintained special schools, FE colleges, HE and youth services. This summary indicates the main changes that affect the School and Post School stages of education. This part of the Act came into force in January 2002.

1. The Act removed efficient education and an education appropriate to meet the needs of the child. These get-out clauses had been used to exclude disabled children from mainstream schools and send them to special schools against the children's or their parents wishes. The Department for Education and Skills have issued statutory guidance on interpreting the remaining caveat that prevents disabled children being educated in a mainstream school if that is what their parents want. This came into force on 1 January 2001. The guidance limits the scope for using incompatible with the efficient education of other children. It provides examples of the reasonable steps schools might take to include children with various impairments so their inclusion would not be incompatible with the efficient education of other children. The reasonable steps to ensure that the inclusion of a child with learning difficulties is not incompatible with the efficient education over other children may include:

* Praising the pupils' strengths and areas of success so that self-esteem is maintained and enhanced;

* Using a flexible grouping arrangements including ones where the pupil can work with more able peers;

* Providing for all pupils experiences which will be of benefit to most pupils but particularly to the pupil with learning difficulties;

* Considering carefully the use of language in the classroom and strategies to promote the learning of need vocabulary;

* Setting appropriate targets so that personal progress can be tracked as well as progress towards externally determined goals;

* Considering carefully the pupil's learning styles and ensuring that this is reflected in this styles of teaching.

2. Requires schools to inform parents when they make special educational provision because they have identified their child as having SEN;
3. Permits schools to request a statutory assessment in the same way that parents can;
4. Makes changes in the arrangements for amendments to statements;
5. Requires LEAs to provide and advertise parent partnership services;
6. Requires LEAs to make arrangements for resolving disagreements between parents and schools and between parents and the LEA;
7. Tightens up arrangements for appeals to the Tribunal, including setting time limits for the implementation of the decisions of the Tribunal.

Currently the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 covers a range of services but does not include education. In November 1999, the Disability Rights Task Force advised the Government on how they might extend to include education. This part of the Act comes into force in September 2002 and is anticipatory in duty. The Act:
· makes it unlawful to discriminate against disabled pupils and prospective pupils in admissions, in education and associated services and in exclusions;

· sets out a duty on schools not to treat disabled pupils less favorably than non-disabled pupils;
· provides for remedy through the renamed SEN and Disability Tribunal, which will have an extended remit to hear disability discrimination cases seek apologies and make orders (but not impose fines);
· sets out a duty on schools to plan to increase environmental access, curriculum access and access to printed information for disabled pupils in schools.

The same restrictions are for Further and Higher Education. This Act came into force in September 2002.

For a responsible body which can be a Proprietor of private school, School, College or University:

There is a duty not to treat less favorably a disabled student or pupil in admissions, education and associated services and exclusions. The only justification is permitted selection criteria or a substantial reason.
The responsible body has a duty has to make reasonable adjustments. In determining a reasonable adjustment the following factors can be taken into account.
1. The need to maintain academic, musical, sporting or academic standards
2. The financial resources available to the responsible body
3. The cost of taking the particular step
4. The extent to which it is practical to take the particular step
5. Health and safety requirements.
6. The interests of other pupils or students and persons who may be admitted to the institution as pupils or students.
Clearly these have the potential to negate the impact of the Act and only the Courts and Tribunals will determine what is reasonable. However two things are clear. The Primary Legislation was made to advance things from the current discriminatory status quo. Secondly Schools and Colleges should operate from a good practice model as institutions committed to equal opportunities. This means reviewing all existing policies & practices for possible disability discrimination and this process should start now.

II

The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice came into force on 1 January 2002. The new Code of Practice is weaker than it should be in making links with the new duties. However, it has new chapters on Parental and Pupil involvement that extends their role and requires that pupils are consulted at all stages about their wishes. The new Code of Practice introduces a more flexible School and School Plus and Early Years and Early Years Plus stages to meet SEN before issuing a statement. At the School Plus/ Early Years Plus stage, pupils can get support and services from beyond the school without having a statement. LEAs have to make clear what they will provide and what the school will provide. This should be used to prevent children being pushed to be stated to access resources.
New powers are to issue Codes of Practice, to carry out investigations into complaints of disability discrimination in all education settings and to provide a conciliation service. There will be a School Code of Practice, and a Post-16 Code of Practice. Drafts have been consulted on and final versions will be issued in May 2002. They come into force in September 2002.

"A person has a disability if he has a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his ability to carry out normal day to-day activities." In the Act "disabled person" means a person with a disability.
To fall within the Act, a person must be substantially affected by their disability in one of the following ways:

- Mobility.

- Physical co-ordination.

- Manual dexterity.

- Continence.

- Ability to lift, carry or otherwise move everyday objects.

- Speech, hearing, eyesight.

- Memory or ability to learn, concentrate or understand.

- Perception of risk or physical danger.

For the purposes of definition, ignore the effects of medical or other treatments or aids and appliances. The definition ignores a social model definition of disablement that would recognise that disability is a process by which people with physical, mental or sensory impairments are excluded from ordinary activities by physical, organisational or attitudinal barriers. Substantial means 'not trivial.'
Some people who do not come within the definition will nevertheless be considered disabled. Those with disfigurement or cancer survivors or others who have had a disability in the past or those people with a progressive condition once the symptoms appear. Those with challenging behavior due to a clinically diagnosed condition are covered while those who may display similar behavior but do not have a clinical diagnosis are not covered. Those with SEN are not the same population as those defined above. There is a big overlap.
We recommend that all pupils with SEN be treated as disabled for the purposes of the Act and for equality in addition to all pupils with impairments being treated as disabled under the Act.

I.1.Now you are going to read the Declaration of Rights of Disabled Persons, proclaimed in 1975. What do you think might change within the past years? Which style do you think this text can be referred to?

2. Pay attention to the following words and word combinations:

Pledge - торжественное обещание, зарок, обязательство;

to take joint and separate actions – предпринимать общие и частные попытки, действия;

co-operation - сотрудничество, взаимопомощь;

to promote - обеспечивать;

to affirm - утверждать, подтверждать;

the dignity - достоинство, благородство;

to recall - вспоминать;

to prevent - предотвращать, предвосхищать какие-либо события;

to assure - заверять;

to ensure - обеспечивать, гарантировать, ручаться;

the welfare - систeма социального обеспечения;

to bear in mind - помнить, иметь ввиду;

to assist - помогать, сотрудничать;

an effort - попытка, старание;

congenital - пренатальные повреждения;

to set forth - издать, опубликовать;

suppression - подавление, замалчивание;

prosthetic and orthotic appliances - протезы и ортопедические приспособления;

counseling - совет;

to hasten - торопить, подгонять, ускорять;

social integration - вовлечение в жизнь общества;

a decent level of living - достойный уровень жизни;

to retain - нанимать за определенную плату;

remunerative occupation - хорошо оплачиваемая работа;

foster parents - приемные родители;

to derive - устанавливать происхождение, происходить от чего- либо;

indispensable - необходимый, обязательный;

abusive - бранный, оскорбительный;

to avail - быть полезным, пригодным;

to take into account - принимать во внимание.

II. Find English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations in the text:

- oбеспечение высокого уровня жизни;

- честь и достоинство человека;

- cоциальная справедливость;

- предотвращение физических недостатков;

- реабилитация людей с физическими недостатками;

- помощь людям с физическими и умственными недостатками;

- призывать международное сообщество к действиям;

- использовать в качестве основы;

- полностью или частично;

- дискриминация по половому признаку;

- политические взгляды;

- благосостояние;

- гражданские и политические права;

- необходимое пребывание в специальном учреждении;

- защищать от эксплуатации;

- квалифицированная юридическая помощь;

- принимать во внимание состояние здоровья;

- все возможные способы.

Use dictionary if necessary.

Brain structure

BRAIN

2. Pay attention to the words in the text:

vertebrates – позвоночные животные;

skull – череп;

cerebellum – мозжечок;

cerebral cortex - кора головного мозга;

neurons – нейроны;

synapses – синапсы;

protoplasmic fibers – нервные волокна, ткани головного мозга;

a cell – клетка;

the spinal cord – спинной мозг;

neural circuitry – кругооборот, цикличность действий нервной системы;

primates – приматы, человекообразные обезьяны;

species – виды живых организмов;

mammals – млекопитающие;

pallium - цереброспинальная (часто её называют спинномозговая) жидкость — ликвор;

frontal lobes –передние лобные доли головного мозга;

the fraction – доля головного мозга;

to maintain – поддерживать, утверждать, содержать;

hagfishes – древние рыбообразные;

medulla – продолговатый мозг;

hypothalamus - гипоталамус;

forebrain – передняя часть головного мозга;

beliesthalamus – билаталамус;

input – помощь в принятии решения;

diverse – иной, отличный, разнообразный, разный;

functions of defecation and copulation – выделительные функции организма;

modulate – модулировать;

tectum – покрышка;

olfaction – обоняние;

spatial memory – пространственная память, ориентирование;

ganglia – нервная клетка;

basal ganglia – базальная нервная клетка, центр деятельности;

to execute - исполнять, выполнять;

the hindbrain and midbrain – задняя и средняя части, доли головного мозга;

to split off – откалывать (-ся), отламывать (-ся);

fossils – ископаемый, старый, допотопный.

II. 1. Find English equivalents in the text to the following:

- центральная нервная система;

- простейшие организмы;

- децентрализованная нервная система;

- очень сложный;

- грубо говоря;

- кубический миллиметр;

- посредством ч.-л.;

- передавать информацию;

- отдаленные части головного мозга;

- контролировать поведение;

- действовать в ответ на ч.-л.;

- ответные реакции;

- увеличение;

- краткое описание;

- спинной мозг;

- сенсорные и моторные функции;

- стадии торможения и возбуждения;

- выработка гормонов;

- полушария головного мозга;

- неуверенные, шаткие, неуклюжие действия;

- врожденные действия;

- управлять действиями в пространстве;

- принимать участие в ч.-л.;

- взаимосвязанные части передней части головного мозга;

- в определенных обстоятельствах.

2. Read the text:

The brain is the center of the nervous system. Some primitive animals have a decentralized nervous system without a brain. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. Brains can be extremely complex. The cerebral cortex of the human brain contains roughly 15-33 billion neurons depending on gender and age, linked with up to 10,000 synaptic connections each. Each cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly one billion synapses. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body and target them to specific recipient cells. Brains control behavior either by activating muscles, or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones. Even single-celled organisms may be capable of extracting information from the environment and acting in response to it. In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself contains neural circuitry capable of generating reflex responses as well as simple motor patterns such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behavior on the basis of complex sensory input requires the information-integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. The brain is the most complex biological structure known, and comparing the brains of different species on the basis of appearance is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are common principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. The cerebral cortex is a part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals from other vertebrates, primates from other mammals, and humans from other primates. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple layered structure called the pallium. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex 6-layered structure called neocortex. In primates, the neocortex is greatly enlarged in comparison to its size in non-primates, especially the part called the frontal lobes. In humans, this enlargement of the frontal lobes is taken to an extreme, and other parts of the cortex also become quite large and complex. The relationship between brain size, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of species. Brain size increases with body size but not proportionally. The larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the cortex. Several brain areas have maintained their identities across the whole range of vertebrates, from hagfishes to humans. Here is a list of some of the most important areas, along with a very brief description of their functions as currently understood (but note that the functions of most of them are still disputed to some degree):

• The medulla, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and motor functions.
• The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and distinct neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is the central control station for sleep/wake cycles, control of eating and drinking, control of hormone release, and many other critical biological functions.
• Like the hypothalamus, the thalamus is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions. Some of them are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres. Others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (zona incerta) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors, including eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.
• The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems to make them more precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. Learning how to ride a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum.
• The tectum, often called "optic tectum", allows actions to be directed toward points in space. In mammals it is called the "superior colliculus", and its best studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements, though. It gets strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls, input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes, etc. In some fishes, it is the largest part of the brain^.
• The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain. In reptiles and mammals it is called cortex instead. The pallium is involved in multiple functions, including olfaction and spatial memory. In mammals, where it comes to dominate the brain, it subsumes functions from many subcortical areas^.
• The hippocampus is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals
• The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain, of which our understanding has increased enormously over the last few years. The primary function of the basal ganglia seems to be action selection. They send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate actions, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Rewards and punishments exert their most important neural effects within the basal ganglia.
• The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals, and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but much reduced in primates.

Lev Vygotsky English words and word combinations:

-to found - основывать, образовывать;

- a psychologist - психолог;

- to attend - посещать;

- to work on - работать над ч.-л.;

-particularly - в особенности, в частности;

-cognitive development - умственное, интеллектуальное развитие;

-to emphasize - акцентировать внимание;

-a tool - инструмент;

-tuberculosis - туберкулез;

-prolific - широко известный, растиражированный;

-diverse - отличный от других;

-to derive - происходить от ч.-л.;

-to gain - приобретать;

-to desire - желать, хотеть;

-reliance - зависимость;

-a pivot - важная основа знаний, фундаментальность;

-to enable - давать возможность ч.-л.делать;

-a contribution - вклад;

-an explicit - понятный;

-to resemble - сходство;

-a gurgle - журчание, хохоток;

-an adolescent - взрослый человек;

-sophistication - удовлетворение;

-a predicate - сказуемое;

-to tend - иметь тенденцию.

2. Pay attention to the following names used in the text:

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky

The Soviet Union;

the Kharkov School of Psychology;

P. Zinchenko;

Zaporozhets;

Asnin;

A. N. Leont'ev;

L. Bozhovich;

G. D. Lukov;

D. El'konin;

Gal'perin;

Jean Piaget;

Tetzchner.

3. Find English equivalents in the text to the following:

Институт психологии;

взаимосвязь развития речи и мышления;

ключевые вопросы;

происхождение, природа явлений;

взаимоотношения людей;

культурная ассимиляция;

кататься на велосипеде;

освоение навыков;

достижения;

присущий только человеку;

отношение к окружающему миру;

кататься на лошади;

игра дочки-матери;

воображение;

самоконтроль;

обращать мысли в слова.

Use dictionary if necessary.

Use dictionary if necessary.

2. Read the text:

I

One of an actual problem, facing teachers and parents, bringing up children with sight infringement, is forming skills of self-service and personal hygiene. His position in kindergarten, at school, at home, relationship with blind and able-to-see contemporaries and with adults will depend on that. Mastering the skills of self-service (the ability to dress, look after himself, toilet skill, to take food, bath and wash himself etc) directly influences child`s self-estimation, as an important step on the way to his independencTraining skills of self-service allows to solve efficiently the problems of expansion of representations and the knowledge of children of surrounding validity, develops his speech, thin motility and visual-motor coordination, and also the ability to fulfill action with a verbal instruction, to observe the certain sequence of actions.

The skills of a self-service allow us to eat, to drink, to dress, to observe personal hygiene ourselves. When you teach a child to be independent, the hardest thing is not to make him do what he can do himself. If a baby tries to eat, a feeding process becomes incredibly slow, all around is spoilt. It is so difficult to allow a child to put on a sock when all the family is hurrying to work, to school, etc. One day all parents come across such difficulties. However it is always necessary to remember about the future - the more children are independent, the more time the parents will have.

Training a child the actions of self-service and household work is the primary target of bringing up. It’s the first and the general step on the way to a high-grade adaptation in the society. Obviously, the better child’s skills are formed, the more adapted for life he grows. However in practice, not all parents realize it. As a result, such children grow up helpless, unprepared socially.

On the other hand, forming self-service skills has a paramount value for the development of informative child’s activity and consequently for his psychological development as a whole.

As a result of fact-finding activity the images of subjects, requirements (food kinds), and means (tools) and ways of their satisfaction (a spoon and the actions are formed this it) are formed.

First of all, a small blind child treats new subjects with distrust and even fear. Interest and desire of acquaintance can be caused only by"useful" irritations (first food, later spoon, clothes etc.). II

With the time passing the amount of subjects, which cause oriental reaction on a child extends and he begins to observe and operate with subjects, although it does not serve to satisfy his natural needs.

Only through mastering practical self-service actions game activity can be developed, being the leading child’s action at preschool age. First child gets acquainted with a spoon at feeding, learns how to operate with it, only then can “feed” a doll, and then

In the special technique of training on the first grade level an adult makes actions together with a child: he carries child’s hands in his and makes all the operations needed with his hands. An adult should gradually give up as much as possible every action and, making actions with child’s hands, to adhere to certain sequence. E.g. training a child to use a cup, and adult shows (by child’s hands), how to take a handle of a cup and to support it with another; how to bring a cup to the mouth and then, having drunk, to put on the table accurately.

Every operation should necessarily be accompanied with an explanation, e.g.:

-Let’s put-on a sweater, we’ll find a collar, here it is. Let’s bring a sweater before us. Now we’ll pass the hands into the sleeves etc.

It’s very important not to miss any attempt of a child to make this or that movement independently. The slightest aspiration for independence should be encouraged.

With the time passing it becomes useless for an adult to make all the operations by child’s hands. An adult together with a child checks, whether an action performed correctly: whether an the jacket is clasped, whether stockings are put on well, whether there is meal left on a plate, whether a spoon was put on its place and whether the mouth is washed well etc.As a result, all the actions are made by the child himself. During the training of the actions of self-service and household work to visually impaired children it is necessary to use not ally touch, but also residual sight. So in the presence of any residual sights it’s necessary to teach children to distinguish subjects visually, along with displaying and allocating touch and other reference points. Thus, it is impossible to ignore the color and other visual qualities helping blind having residual sight, to be guided in a situation.

First it is better to give a child a little cup, half-filled with a liquid, as his hands are still weak. He would support a cup and only then he’ll train to hold it himself. Watch that a mug isn’t hot; it may lead to refusal to hold

The training of using spoon usually is interfaced with bigger difficulties, than training to use a cup. First of all it’s needed to acquaint a child with a spoon and a plate. It’s necessary to touch a bottom of an empty plate by child’s hand, then put a meal in the plate (not hot) and to touch it, explaining every action. After that it’s possibly to give a spoon to a child, having told that it is necessary to eat with the help of the spoon, instead of hands, and to show how it’s necessary to eat with a spoon. For this purpose it’s needed to scoop a meal with a spoon and to show a baby (to touch a meal in a spoon by his hand). If to start training in time, by the age of three a child will learn to eat with the spoon and to drink from a mug independently. III

The process of dressing should go through the same stages but in a slowed down rate.

It’s very important not to miss the moment of child’s activity. First, a child helps in a way, when he accepts all the necessary skills for performing each action (scratches hands, lifts legs, turns to an adult, etc.). Then, he begins to aspire to do this or that operation independently. An adult should induce the kid, to direct his hands, to carry out this or that operation by his hands. Gradually the child will start to carry out separate operations by himself. An adult should dose the help strictly to a child during dressing: to carry out for a child only those operations, which he can not execute, doing with him operations, which he trains to do and not to do for himself that he can do himself already.

It happens that a child is capricious during clothing: doesn’t wish to dress or, on the contrary, wishes to do everything himself. In each specific case it is necessary to try to understand the reasons.

If it’s difficult for a child to make an action, which he was already able to carry out, the adult reminds him the sequence of operations, directs child’s hands, helps to believe in his forces. By the age of 3 a blind child should learn to a take off a vest, a shirt, panties, stockings, slippers independently and to dress with some help.

During undressing it is necessary to teach a baby not to let the taken off clothes release, but to stretch it to an adult. Before going to bed it’s necessary to show a baby, how to hang up a dress on a chair, how to put slippers near bed`s leg.

He should also learn, where overcoats are, where footwear is. The process of an action with a subject attracts preschool child more than the result. So a child can make an action again and again, without aspiring to finish it. It shouldn’t be interfered, as repetition of separated operations promotes the formation of elementary skills of self-service.

On the third year of blind child’s life, with the development of subject actions, walking and speech, learning some new actions, connected with household work, becomes possible.

Accuracy in education of a blind child has got especially great value. All subjects to use, personal things of a child, toys should lie on proper places. It’s necessary to try baby to remember soon, where each thing lies and always get it back. Mother can involve a baby in her adult activity. E.g. laying a table.Such activity is very valuable and useful for a child, as it promotes the enrichment of his sensual experience; by taking part in it he learns the surrounding objects and learns how to operate with them. Of course, the result of his activity is insignificant and he even often disturbs mother. However if a child would know that he “helps his mother” – it would discipline him and focus on the result of the work.

A timely formation of skills of self-service and household work at preschool age is important for successful mental development of a child at later age, it will promote the development of multination, which is necessary for living.

The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

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2. Read the text:

The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

The first intelligence tests were used in the field of psychology. The scales designed by Binet and Simon were the first intelligent tests that became widely accepted at the beginning of the 20^th century. The Alpha and Beta army tests that were used in World war l to assess military personnel became very popular.

In recent years, the Wechsler scales are the most wildly used instruments in the field of psychology for measuring intelligence. The designer of these tests, Wechsler, published his first scale in the 1930s. He used material from the Binet Alpha and Beta tests to make his test. An important feature of his test was that when calculating the IQ, this test took age into account. In other words, in the computation of the IQ, an age-correction takes place. Because of this feature, the IQ stays constant over the life span.

IQ (intelligence quotient) = (Mental Age/Chronological Age) x 100.

The IQ of a child between the ages of 5 to 16 years old is calculated by dividing the child’s mental age by his chronological age and then multiplying the results by 100. If a 10 year old child performs mentally at a 10 year old level, the IQ is calculated as 10 divided by 10 equaling 1, and multiplying the 1 by 100 equals an IQ of 100. If the 10 year old child mentally performs at a 20 year old level, then 20 over 10 equals 2, and multiplying 2 by 100 equals an IQ score of 200.

Adult IQ is calculated by supervised IQ testing. Adult IQ scores are specific to each IQ test and are not interchangeable between one IQ test and another. Membership qualifications to most high IQ societies require percentile ratings instead of IQ scores.

The IQ formula (MA/CA) х100=IQ was created as an indicator, not based on mathematical rules. IQ scores are relative numbers, of no real measurement other than to show relative differences of measurable mental performance between different people taking similar tests.

An IQ tells you what your score is on a particular intelligence test, compared to your age-group. The test has a mean score of 100 points and a standard deviation of 15 points. What does this standard deviation mean? It means that 68 percent of the population score IQ within the interval 85-115 and that 95 percent of the population scores within the interval 70-130.

An easy way to interpret an IQ is to use the following rules:

- a score that is no more than one standard deviation (=15) away from 100, can be interpreted as a normal score.

- a score that is between one and two standard deviations away from 100 can be interpreted as low (70-85) or high (115-130).

- a score that is more than two standard deviations away from 100, can be interpreted as very low (lower than 70) or very high (higher than 130).

Men and women have statistically significant differences in average scores on tests of particular abilities. Studies also illustrate consistently greater variance in the performance of men compared to that of women (i.e., men are more represented at the extremes of performance).

IQ tests are weight on these sex differences so there is no bias on average in favor of one sex; however the consistent difference in variance is not removed. Because the tests are defined so there is no average difference it is difficult to put any meaning on a statement that one sex has a higher intelligence than the other. However some people have made claims like this even using unbiased IQ tests. For instance claims that men tend to outperform women on average by 3-4 IQ points based on tests of medical students where the greater variance of men’s IQ can be expected to contribute to the result, or where a ’correction’ is made for different maturation ages.

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Depression is very common and affects as many as 1 in 8 people in their teen years. Depression affects people of every color, race, economic status, or age; however, it does seem to affect more girls than guys.
Sometimes friends or family members recognize that someone is depressed. They may respond with love, kindness, or support, hoping that the sadness will soon pass. They may offer to listen if the person wants to talk. If the depressed feeling doesn't pass with a little time, friends or loved ones may encourage the person to get help from a doctor, therapist, or counselor.
But not everyone recognizes depression when it happens to someone they know.
Some people don't really understand about depression. For example, they may react to a depressed person's low energy with criticism, yelling at the person for acting lazy or not trying harder. Some people mistakenly believe that depression is just an attitude or a mood that a person can shake off. It's not that easy.
Sometimes even people who are depressed don't take their condition seriously enough. Some people feel that they are weak in some way because they are depressed. This is wrong and it can even be harmful if it causes people to hide their depression and avoid getting help.
Occasionally, when depression causes physical symptoms (things like headaches or other stress-related problems), a person may see a doctor. Once in a while, even a well-meaning doctor may not realize a person is depressed, and just treat the physical symptoms.
There is no single cause for depression. Many factors play a role including genetics, environment, life events, medical conditions, and the way people react to things that happen in their lives.
Research shows that depression runs in families and that some people inherit genes that make it more likely for them to get depressed. Not everyone who has the genetic makeup for depression gets depressed, though. And many people who have no family history of depression have the condition. So although genes are one factor, they aren't the single cause of depression.
The death of a family member, friend, or pet can go beyond normal grief and sometimes lead to depression. Other difficult life events, such as when parents divorce, separate, or remarry, can cause and even make the depression worse. Even events like moving or changing schools can be emotionally challenging enough that a person becomes depressed.
For some teens, a negative, stressful, or unhappy family atmosphere can affect their self-esteem and lead to depression. This can also include high-stress living situations such as poverty; homelessness; and violence in the family, relationships, or community.
Substance use and abuse also can cause chemical changes in the brain that affect mood; alcohol and some drugs are known to have depressant effects. The negative social and personal consequences of substance abuse also can lead to severe unhappiness and depression.
Certain medical conditions can affect hormone balance and therefore have an effect on mood. Some conditions, such as hypothyroidism, are known to cause a depressed mood in some people. When these medical conditions are diagnosed and treated by a doctor, the depression usually disappears.
For some teens, undiagnosed learning disabilities might block school success, hormonal changes might affect mood, or physical illness might present challenges or setbacks.
Depression involves the brain's delicate chemistry specifically, it involves chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals help send messages between nerve cells in the brain. Certain neurotransmitters regulate mood, and if they run low, people can become depressed, anxious, and stressed. Stress also can affect the balance of neurotransmitters and lead to depression.
Sometimes, a person may experience depression without being able to point to any particular sad or stressful event. People who have a genetic predisposition to depression may be more prone to the imbalance of neurotransmitter activity that is part of depression.
Medications that doctors use to treat depression work by helping to restore the proper balance of neurotransmitters.
For some people, depression can be intense and occur in bouts that last for weeks at a time. For others, depression can be less severe but can linger at a low level for years.
Doctors who treat depression distinguish between these two types of depression. They call the more severe, short-lasting type major depression and the longer-lasting but less severe form dysthymia (pronounced: dis-thy-me-uh).
A third form of depression that doctors may diagnose is called adjustment disorder with depressed mood. This diagnosis refers to a depressive reaction to a specific life event (such as death, divorce, or other loss), when adjusting to the loss takes longer than the normally expected timeframe or is more severe than expected and interferes with the person's daily activities.
Bipolar disorder (also sometimes called manic depressive illness) is another depressive condition that involves periods of major depression mixed with periods of mania. Mania is the term for abnormally high mood and extreme bursts of unusual activity or energy.
Depression is one of the most common emotional problems in the United States and around the world. The good news is that it's also one of the most treatable conditions. Therapists and other professionals can help. In fact, about 80% of people who get help for their depression have a better quality of life; they feel better and enjoy themselves in a way that they weren't able to before.
Treatment for depression can include talk therapy, medication, or a combination of both.
Talk therapy with a mental health professional is very effective in treating depression. Therapy sessions can help people understand more about why they feel depressed, and the ways to combat it. Sometimes, doctors prescribe medicine for a person who has depression. When prescribing medicine, a doctor will carefully monitor patients to make sure they get the right dose. The doctor will adjust the dose as necessary. It can take a few weeks before the person feels the medicine working. Because every person's brain is different, what works well for one person might not be good for other.
Everyone can benefit from mood-boosting activities like exercise, yoga, dance, journaling, or art. It can also help to keep busy no matter how tired you feel.
People who are depressed shouldn't wait and hope it will go away on its own because depression can be effectively treated. Friends or others need to step in if someone seems severely depressed and isn't getting help.
Many people find that it helps to open up to parents or other adults they trust. Simply saying, "I've been feeling really down lately and I think I'm depressed," can be a good way to begin the discussion. Ask your parent to arrange an appointment with a therapist. If a parent or family member can't help, turn to your school counselor, best friend, or a helpline to get help.
People who are extremely depressed and who may be thinking about hurting themselves or about suicide need help as soon as possible. When depression is this severe, it is a very real medical emergency, and an adult must be notified. Most communities have suicide hotlines where people can get guidance and support in an emergency.
Although it's important to be supportive, trying to cheer up a friend or reasoning with him or her probably won't work to help depression or suicidal feelings go away. Depression can be so strong that it outweighs a person's ability to respond to reason. Even if your friend has asked you to promise not to tell, severe depression is a situation where telling can save a life. The most important thing a depressed person can do is to get help. If you or a friend feels unsafe or out of control, get help now. Depression doesn't mean a person is "crazy." Depression (and the suffering that goes with it) is a real and recognized medical problem. Just as things can go wrong in all other organs of the body, things can go wrong in the most important organ of all: the brain. Luckily, most teens who get help for their depression go on to enjoy life and feel better about themselves.

SPECIAL EDUCATION

In every school system there are pupils who deviate markedly from so called "normal children" and require special education.

The primary function of special education is to provide treatment, training and instruction for such handicapped children.

Special education is planned to make use of highly spe­cialized methods in order to provide all exceptional children with the specific type of educational service they need.

These special services may include a radical modifica­tion of the curriculum, special methods of instruction as well as special equipment.

Consequently, special education is applied to each type of exceptional children who are handicapped physically, men­tally or socially.

In fact, such children cannot follow the regular school programme because of their handicaps but they can profit by a restricted and adjusted programme.

Today all "handicapped" children are called exceptional children. In America "special education" is generally refer­red to as the "education of exceptional children".

The term "exceptional" includes the various types of physically handicapped children such as: the crippled, the blind and the partially sighted, the deaf and hard of hearing, the deafened, the speech defectives and those with special health problems, the emotionally disturbed, the mentally re­tarded.

Each kind of special handicap presents it’s own particu­lar problems and needs. Handicapped children present learning difficulties; their sensory and motor impairments re­quire careful study in order to adapt instruction successfully as they cannot adjust to the ordinary school programme.

Special education presents a wide variety of medical, social, vocational and administrative problems for education.

With universal compulsory education, special education became a necessity. Special education implies the development of a healthy well adjusted personality who can adapt himself to a society in which he can know success.

The best system of training is one in which the child follows the normal training course designed for ordinary school work, but in addition devotes some time to special work designed to eliminate the respective defects.

So a child with marked hearing loss requires additional services and special instruction in compensating for his handicaps. A child with seriously defective vision also re­quires special techniques of instruction, different from those applied to a child who has normal vision. The crippled child likewise requires special facilities for his physical handi­cap.

Children with particular handicaps must be placed in special schools and classes, where they get additional services and special instruction. At such schools children are given knowledge, habits and abilities according to the normal training course but the applied methods are specialized.

Classification of Exceptional Children.

Children are classified according to their handicaps

1. the mentally retarded

2. the deaf and the hard of hearing

3. the blind and the partially sighted

4. the speech defective

5. the crippled

6. Health problem children

There are two more groups in American classification

They are:

7. the mentally gifted

8. children presenting serious behaviour problem

T E R M S

to deviate иметь отклонения

to make use of использовать

highly specialised methods специальные метода

to provide обеспечить, охватить

exceptional children аномальные дети

educational service обучение и воспитание

modification изменение

curriculum учебный план

methods of instruction методы обучения

equipment оборудование

mentally умственно

to follow the programme следовать, обучаться по программе

handicap недостаток /физический, умственный

to profit извлекать пользу

to restrict ограничивать

to refer to ссылаться, называться, относиться

to apply to применять

to adjust oneself приспосабливаться

crippled children дети-калеки

the blind слепые

the partially sighted слабовидящие

the deaf глухие

the hard of hearing слабослышащие

partially deaf слабослышащие

the deafened оглохшие

the speech defective логопаты

emotionally disturbed страдающие нарушением психики

the mentally retarded умственно-отсталые

the gifted одаренные

impairment=handicap недостаток, нарушение

sensory and motor impairment сенсорные и моторные нарушения

to require требовать

to adapt приспособлять, адаптировать

to adjust приспособлять

a wide variety большое разнообразие

vocational education профобучение

compulsory education обязательное обучение

hearing loss потеря слуха

additional services дополнительные услуги обучения

defective vision слабое зрение

special facility специальные средства

DEFINING MENTAL RETARDATION

Many "labels" have been applied to the child who functions at an intellectual level below average. These include mentally defective, mentally subnormal, mentally retarded, in­tellectually defective, intellectually subnormal, intellec­tually retarded, oligophrenic, feebleminded, a mental, excep­tional, slow learning and so forth. Really there is little difference among them, although some do carry more positive emotional connotations than others.

In this text the phrase "mentally retarded" will be used to denote the whole range of retardation, but the term feeble­minded or the phrase "mentally defective" will be used to de­note more severe mental retardation. There have been many at­tempts at defining precisely what is meant by the concept of "mental retardation". Some persons have attempted to define the condition in terms of the intelligence quotient that an individual achieves. This has been particularly characteristic of authorities in the United States, where the use of intelligence tests has flourished. In such cases the usual procedure is to define intellectual retardation in terms of an intelligence quotient score of below 70. A child, who ob­tains an intelligence quotient of 68, however is not necessa­rily more retarded mentally than a child with an intelligence quotient of 72, since many factors must be taken into consi­deration in the interpretation of intelligence test scores.

Pr. Tredgold defines mental retardation as follows:

... a state of incomplete mental development of such a kind and degree that the individual is incapable of adapting himself to the normal environment of his fellows in such a way asto maintain existence independently of supervision, control or external support. We may note that this definition stresses the degree of social adequacy of the person - how well he is able to adjust to the demands of society in compa­rison with others of his age group. "Inability to adapt" is emphasized as an important factor. Children who are "average" in intelligence quotient are between 95 and 104. About 3% of the total group is considered to be "feebleminded". This group has intelligence quotient below 65.

T E R M S

mental retardation умственная отсталость

intellectual level уровень интеллектуального развития

subnormal аномальный

mentally defective умственно-отсталый

oligophrenic олигофрен

feebleminded слабоумный

connotation дополнительное значение

condition зд. состояние

intelligence quotient интеллектуальный коэффициент

THE RETARDED CHILD LEARNS BEST

CEREBRAL PALSIED CHILDREN

Cerebral palsy is a general term which covers a variety of conditions caused by damage to certain areas in the brain. The most common forms are the spastic, the athetotic, and the ataxic. Speech is disturbed in about 70%of cases of cerebral palsy.

Their speech is labored, slow, the voice is often mono­tonous and relatively uncontrolled, and the articulation suf­fers because of the impaired muscular coordination. Cerebral palsied speech is a problem for the professional speech correctionist, but the classroom teacher plays a vital role in giving him opportunities of the training recommended by the speech correctionist and by other specialists. The treatment of cerebral palsy is a complex problem and the cooperation of a number of specialists is needed: the therapist, the neuro­logist, the pediatrician, the orthopedist, the speech correctionist and others. The majority of cerebral palsied children have several handicaps and therefore they need many kinds of help. They have the motor handicap by which their condition is defined and diagnosed, but they also have sensory difficulties and perceptual impairments. It is difficult for them to adjust to their handicaps and get through school and find a place in the life. Sometimes the child is emotionally unst­able; sometimes he is mentally retarded.

Cerebral palsied children attend a special school or a regular school. Sometimes they require permanent clinic care, some get education at home.

For many cerebral palsied children in overall programme would include the following.

1)