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I. 1. The text you are going to read is dedicated to brain structure. Look at the picture and give Kazakh or Russian names to the parts of the brain.

BRAIN

2. Pay attention to the words in the text:

vertebrates – позвоночные животные;

skull – череп;

cerebellum – мозжечок;

cerebral cortex - кора головного мозга;

neurons – нейроны;

synapses – синапсы;

protoplasmic fibers – нервные волокна, ткани головного мозга;

a cell – клетка;

the spinal cord – спинной мозг;

neural circuitry – кругооборот, цикличность действий нервной системы;

primates – приматы, человекообразные обезьяны;

species – виды живых организмов;

mammals – млекопитающие;

pallium - цереброспинальная (часто её называют спинномозговая) жидкость — ликвор;

frontal lobes –передние лобные доли головного мозга;

the fraction – доля головного мозга;

to maintain – поддерживать, утверждать, содержать;

hagfishes – древние рыбообразные;

medulla – продолговатый мозг;

hypothalamus - гипоталамус;

forebrain – передняя часть головного мозга;

beliesthalamus – билаталамус;

input – помощь в принятии решения;

diverse – иной, отличный, разнообразный, разный;

functions of defecation and copulation – выделительные функции организма;

modulate – модулировать;

tectum – покрышка;

olfaction – обоняние;

spatial memory – пространственная память, ориентирование;

ganglia – нервная клетка;

basal ganglia – базальная нервная клетка, центр деятельности;

to execute - исполнять, выполнять;

the hindbrain and midbrain – задняя и средняя части, доли головного мозга;

to split off – откалывать (-ся), отламывать (-ся);

fossils – ископаемый, старый, допотопный.

 

II. 1. Find English equivalents in the text to the following:

- центральная нервная система;

- простейшие организмы;

- децентрализованная нервная система;

- очень сложный;

- грубо говоря;

- кубический миллиметр;

- посредством ч.-л.;

- передавать информацию;

- отдаленные части головного мозга;

- контролировать поведение;

- действовать в ответ на ч.-л.;

- ответные реакции;

- увеличение;

- краткое описание;

- спинной мозг;

- сенсорные и моторные функции;

- стадии торможения и возбуждения;

- выработка гормонов;

- полушария головного мозга;

- неуверенные, шаткие, неуклюжие действия;

- врожденные действия;

- управлять действиями в пространстве;

- принимать участие в ч.-л.;

- взаимосвязанные части передней части головного мозга;

- в определенных обстоятельствах.

 

2. Read the text:

The brain is the center of the nervous system. Some primitive animals have a decentralized nervous system without a brain. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. Brains can be extremely complex. The cerebral cortex of the human brain contains roughly 15-33 billion neurons depending on gender and age, linked with up to 10,000 synaptic connections each. Each cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly one billion synapses. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body and target them to specific recipient cells. Brains control behavior either by activating muscles, or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones. Even single-celled organisms may be capable of extracting information from the environment and acting in response to it. In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself contains neural circuitry capable of generating reflex responses as well as simple motor patterns such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behavior on the basis of complex sensory input requires the information-integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. The brain is the most complex biological structure known, and comparing the brains of different species on the basis of appearance is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are common principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. The cerebral cortex is a part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals from other vertebrates, primates from other mammals, and humans from other primates. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple layered structure called the pallium. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex 6-layered structure called neocortex. In primates, the neocortex is greatly enlarged in comparison to its size in non-primates, especially the part called the frontal lobes. In humans, this enlargement of the frontal lobes is taken to an extreme, and other parts of the cortex also become quite large and complex. The relationship between brain size, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of species. Brain size increases with body size but not proportionally. The larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the cortex. Several brain areas have maintained their identities across the whole range of vertebrates, from hagfishes to humans. Here is a list of some of the most important areas, along with a very brief description of their functions as currently understood (but note that the functions of most of them are still disputed to some degree):

  • The medulla, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and motor functions.
  • The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and distinct neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is the central control station for sleep/wake cycles, control of eating and drinking, control of hormone release, and many other critical biological functions.
  • Like the hypothalamus, the thalamus is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions. Some of them are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres. Others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (zona incerta) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors, including eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.
  • The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems to make them more precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. Learning how to ride a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum.
  • The tectum, often called "optic tectum", allows actions to be directed toward points in space. In mammals it is called the "superior colliculus", and its best studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements, though. It gets strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls, input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes, etc. In some fishes, it is the largest part of the brain.
  • The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain. In reptiles and mammals it is called cortex instead. The pallium is involved in multiple functions, including olfaction and spatial memory. In mammals, where it comes to dominate the brain, it subsumes functions from many subcortical areas.
  • The hippocampus is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals
  • The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain, of which our understanding has increased enormously over the last few years. The primary function of the basal ganglia seems to be action selection. They send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate actions, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Rewards and punishments exert their most important neural effects within the basal ganglia.
  • The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals, and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but much reduced in primates.

I.Look at the picture. We are going to read the text about a very famous Soviet developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky. What do you know about him and his works?  
II. 1.Before you read the text pay attention to the following

Lev Vygotsky English words and word combinations:

-to found - основывать, образовывать;

- a psychologist - психолог;

- to attend - посещать;

- to work on - работать над ч.-л.;

-particularly - в особенности, в частности;

-cognitive development - умственное, интеллектуальное развитие;

-to emphasize - акцентировать внимание;

-a tool - инструмент;

-tuberculosis - туберкулез;

-prolific - широко известный, растиражированный;

-diverse - отличный от других;

-to derive - происходить от ч.-л.;

-to gain - приобретать;

-to desire - желать, хотеть;

-reliance - зависимость;

-a pivot - важная основа знаний, фундаментальность;

-to enable - давать возможность ч.-л.делать;

-a contribution - вклад;

-an explicit - понятный;

-to resemble - сходство;

-a gurgle - журчание, хохоток;

-an adolescent - взрослый человек;

-sophistication - удовлетворение;

-a predicate - сказуемое;

-to tend - иметь тенденцию.

 

2. Pay attention to the following names used in the text:

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky

The Soviet Union;

the Kharkov School of Psychology;

P. Zinchenko;

Zaporozhets;

Asnin;

A. N. Leont'ev;

L. Bozhovich;

G. D. Lukov;

D. El'konin;

Gal'perin;

Jean Piaget;

Tetzchner.

 

3. Find English equivalents in the text to the following:

Институт психологии;

взаимосвязь развития речи и мышления;

ключевые вопросы;

происхождение, природа явлений;

взаимоотношения людей;

культурная ассимиляция;

кататься на велосипеде;

освоение навыков;

достижения;

присущий только человеку;

отношение к окружающему миру;

кататься на лошади;

игра дочки-матери;

воображение;

самоконтроль;

обращать мысли в слова.

Use dictionary if necessary.

 

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