THE PRINCIPAL INSTITUTIONS OF THE EU

4.3.1 Study these words before reading the text.

institution –учреждение, организация, орган

European Commission –Европейская Комиссия

Council of the European Union(Council of Ministers)–Совет Европейского Союза (Совет Министров)

European Parliament –Европейский Парламент

European Council –Европейский Совет

European Court of Justice (ECJ) – Европейский Суд Справедливости

Court of First Instance –Суд Первой Инстанции

European Court of Auditors –Аудиторский Суд

European Investment Bank – Европейский Инвестиционный Банк

Committee of Regions – Региональная Комиссия

Ombudsman – Омбудсмен

European Central Bank – Европейский Центральный Банк

to enhance –увеличивать, усиливать

guardian –зд. блюститель

summit –встреча на высшем уровне

supervision –надзор

good practice –законные действия

malpractice –противозаконные действия

4.3.2 Read the text and translate it into Russian using a dictionary.

The European Union (EU) was founded to enhance political, economic and social cooperation in Europe. Its institutions are an expression of the will to create a ‘closer union of the peoples of Europe’ based on the following share of political responsibilities: the European Commission proposes, the European Parliament advises, the Council of the European Union decides, and the Court of Justice rules.

TheCommission consists of members (Commissioners) appointed by the member states for 5 years. They must be nationals of a member state (there are two members from the largest states –France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK – and one from the rest). However, they do not represent their own countries: they are independent, and represent the interests of the EU overall.

The Commission has three distinct functions:

– initiator of proposals for legislation;

– guardian of the Treaties;

– executor of Union policies.

TheCouncil of the European Union,also known asthe Council of Ministers represents the interests of individual member states. It does not have a permanent membership – in each meeting, the members are chosen according to the subject under discussion (for example, if a discussion is on farming the Minister of Agriculture of each country will attend).

(The Council of the European Union should not be confused with the European Councilwhich is formed by Heads of State or Government who meet twice a year in the form of summit meetings to discuss important Union matters.)

The European Parliament is composed of members (MEPs) who are elected in their own countries to five-year terms. The individual member countries are represented according to population.

The most important powers of the European Parliament are:

– legislative power;

– power over the budget;

– supervision over the executive.

The European Court of Justice (ECJ) is composed of 27 judges and 9 advocates general.

The Court decides cases brought by the member states, by the Union institutions and by individuals and companies. It guarantees uniform interpretation of the Union law.

In 1989 a Court of First Instance was attached to the Court of Justice to improve the judicial protection of individual interests. The Court of First Instance now deals with all cases of individuals and companies against the Union institutions. Its decisions may be appealed to the Court of Justice.

As the European Union has enlarged, the institutions have grown larger and more numerous. The European Court of Auditors plays an important role of financial control; the European Investment Bank is a major source of finance for economic development; the Committee of Regions represents the regional interests in the Union; the Ombudsman deals with ensuring good practice in the administration of the Community institutions; and the European Central Bank has the main aim of price stability.

4.3.3 Read the text again to answer the following questions.

1) Why was the European Union founded?

2) What are its main institutions? How are political responsibilities shared among them?

3) What are the membership, representation and functions of the Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice?

4) Why was the Court of First Instance attached to the Court of Justice?

5) What additional institutions have been created as the European Union has grown larger?

GRAMMAR: The Gerund

Forms of the Gerund

4.4.1 Turn the following gerunds into their passive and perfect forms.

Involving, concerning, considering, deciding, referring, creating, applying, regulating, supporting, coexisting, incorporating, establishing, accommodating, entering, concluding, binding, possessing, enhancing;

4.4.2 Complete the following sentences with the Gerunds from the table.

1) If the English courts are uncertain … a piece of European legislation they can, and sometimes must, refer it to the European court of Justice for interpretation.

2) … the European Communities in 1973, the UK agreed to apply and be bound by community law.

3) … civil cases that involve a foreign element, private international law considers foreign laws within a particular country.

4) Unlike other forms of international law, EEC law is capable …directly into national law.

5) Directives are binding on Member States as to the result to be achieved, … each Member State a choice about the method used to achieve that result.

6) … the legality of the contract of sale of some property in France, any English court must consider French law.

7) EEC law is applicable in the UK … by an act Parliament.

8) The Ombudsman is in charge … good practice in the administration of the community institutions.

9) … as a series of economic agreements between six nations in 1950s, community law now has direct authority in the social and economic affairs of many countries.

10) … to any or all member states, to companies, or individuals the EU decisions are binding only on the recipient.

HUMAN RIGHTS

5.1.1 Study these words before reading the text.

human rights –права человека

to transcend –переступать (границы, пределы)

to inflict –причинять (страдания)

infliction -причинение

torture –пытка

refugee –беженец

to abolish –отменять

abolition –отмена

Amnesty International –Международная организация по амнистии

United Nations Organization(UNO)–Организация Объединенных Наций

International humanitarian law –международное гуманитарное право

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) – Всеобщая Декларация Прав Человека

Covenant (also treaty, convention) – международное соглашение (договор)

provision –положение; условие (договора, закона и т.п.)

International Bill of Rights –Международный Билль о Правах

5.1.2 Read and translate the text.

Most of the law in the world is made by individual governments for their own people. But human rights transcend political divisions. They are basic minimum standards of freedom and security for all - the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; the right to liberty and security of person and freedom of association with others; the right to peaceful assembly and freedom of expression; the right to vote; the right to sue in court and have a fair trial, etc. These basic moral standards should not depend on where a person lives.

One of the forms of human rights violations is torture – deliberate and systematic infliction of physical and mental suffering. A very large area of human rights violations is concerned with refugees.Another hotly debated issue of human rights violations is capital punishmentwhichdeprives human beings of the most inherent right – the right to life.Several international organizations have made the abolition of the death penalty a requirement of membership (e.g. the European Union and the Council of Europe). As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice, with the sole exception of Belarus, which is not a member of the Council of Europe.

When the laws of the country violate human rights, groups like Amnesty International protest the government on moral and legal grounds. Another organization active in protection of human rights is the United Nations Organization(UNO). One of the fundamental principles of the UNOis respect for human rights at all times and in all places. To prevent armed conflict and to preserve humanity in time of war are the purposes of international humanitarian law. The aims of the international humanitarian law are: to protect persons who are not engaged in military actions – the wounded, prisoners of war and civilians; and to limit the effects of violence in fighting. There are today clear limits on the types of action that will be tolerated in armed conflict.

Most countries of the world have signed international agreements on human rights. The most comprehensive of such agreements is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. It was proclaimed “a common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations”. The UDHR states that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and that the rights do not depend on race, color, sex, language, religion or any other difference among people.

The two International Covenants – one on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the other on Political Rights, were adopted in 1966 and made the provisions of the Universal Declaration legally binding.

The Universal Declaration, together with the two International Covenants forms the International Bill of Rights.

But despite the development of legally binding national and international conventions and organizations protecting human rights, millions of people in the world still do not enjoy human rights. Treaties and conventions cannot save lives, or protect the property of innocent people unless the will exists to apply these agreements in all conditions, unless everyone realizes that the basic issue is – respecting human rights.

5.1.3 Read the text again to answer the following questions.

1) What are human rights? Give examples.

2) What are the most common forms of human rights violations?

3) What international organizations are active in protection of human rights?

4) What is one of the fundamental principles of the UNO?

5) What are the purposes and aims of international humanitarian law?

6) What international agreements form the so-called International Bill of Rights?

7) What is the difference between a declaration and a covenant?

8) What is the importance of the two International Covenants adopted in 1966?

9) What is the basic issue of human rights law?