SARATOV STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY.

Medical Education in Russia.

There is a great number of medical schools in Russia. Applicants have to pass 3 entrance exams to get into medical school. Usually they are chemistry, biology and Russian literature.

Medical education in Russia is very competitive. There are up to 10 candidates for each place at medical school. The entrance exams take place over 10 days in July. Students who fail at these exams can reapply the next year.

Medical education takes 6 years in Russia. The first two years are pre-clinical – students study anatomy, physiology, physics, histology and also philosophy. From the beginning of the course they spend one day a week in hospital, where students learn how to take patients’ blood, pressure and temperature and to give injections.

The third year is a transitional year between the pre-clinical and clinical years. Students learn pathology, pharmacology, general surgery and general medicine. At the end of the third year all students take a six-week practical course as nursing assistants.

The fourth and the fifth years are clinical. Students have tutorials in the mornings, then see patients and have lectures in the afternoons. After a fourth year students have a practical course lasting 8 weeks. They work as doctors’ assistants at the therapeutical, surgical, obstetric and gynecological and other departments. After the fifth year they take a six-week course in out-patients’ clinics.

In the sixth year students work on chosen specialization almost as real doctors under the supervision of specialists.

Upon completion of the sixth year, having passed state exams, graduates get a diploma. After one year internship they receive a certificate of specialization. After qualifying students do one or two years of residency. Postgraduate training includes 3 years of research and leads after defending a thesis to a Candidate of Sciences (Medicine).

SARATOV STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY.

Our medical university is old. It was founded in 1909. It was the 10^th university in Russia. At that time the university had only one medical faculty. The founder and the first rector was professor V. Razumovsky, an outstanding surgeon.

The first 93 students admitted to the university were men. Women were not allowed to study at the university till 1914. Several departments in the basic sciences were opened at that time: Physiology, Chemistry, General and Operative Surgery, Histology, Forensic Medicine and others.

In 1930 the university was reorganized. An independent medical institute was formed. There were 3 faculties at the institute: Medical, Sanitary-Prophylactic and Care of Mother and Child. Many talented scientists worked at the institute at that time. They were Mirotvortsev, Bogomolets, Spasokukotsky and many others. The institute trained a lot of highly qualified specialists. They worked in different fields of medicine.

Since 1993 the institute is the university again. Now there are 6 faculties. They are faculty of medicine, faculty of pediatrics, faculty of dentistry, faculty of nursing, faculty of preventive medicine and pharmaceutical faculty.

I am a student of the pediatric faculty. At our faculty the course of studies lasts for 6 years and consists of pre-clinical, transitional and clinical periods. The general theoretic and practical training ends in the 5^th year. During the 6^th year students study at the sub-internship. There they take the primary specialization as pediatricians, surgeons and infectionists. At the end of the 6^th year students have state exams, receive their diploma and apply for internship. At the internship young doctors can specialize in therapy, nervous diseases, psychiatry, eye diseases, otolaryngology and radiology. After the specialization students have an exam in their speciality.

Medical Education in England.

Two kinds of medical establishments train doctors in great Britain: medical faculties of the Universities and higher medical schools. 14% of them are private schools.

To enter medical higher school applicants take 5-6 entrance exams: in English, in Foreign language, in Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics.

The course of study lasts for 8 years. English medical schools have no state general curriculum. Each school has its own curriculum which includes compulsory and non-compulsory subjects. Compulsory subjects are Biology, Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry and others. Non-compulsory subjects are Biophysics, Physics, Social Health Protection and so on.

A 5-year curriculum consists of four periods: premedical, pre-clinical, introductory clinical and clinical. The premedical period (the first year) deals with Chemistry, Physics, Biology. Students have lectures and practical hours. The pre-clinical period includes such subjects as Anatomy, Histology, Organic Chemistry and others. During premedical and pre-clinical periods students study compulsory and non-compulsory subjects. During the introductory clinical and clinical periods they study only compulsory subjects. They learn the methods of clinical examination of the patient, history taking, nursing, clinical service. They study Pathology, Psychiatry, Practical Pharmacy and so on. The clinical period of training lasts from the third till the fifth year.

After graduation from a higher school young specialists must take a one year internship before they begin to work as doctors. They must work as interns at a clinic. In addition to that every doctor must have a 3-year specialization and take several final exams..

Education in Great Britain is not free of charge, 50% of students get grants. It depends on their success in studies and their family status.

Famous people in Medicine.

N.I. Pirogov.

The development of surgery began in the 19^th century. The founder of modern surgery was the greatest Russian scientist N.I. Pirogov.

Pirogov was born in Moscow on November 13, 1810. At the age of 14 he entered Medical faculty of Moscow University. He studied brilliantly and at the age of 18 graduated from the University. After that he was sent to Derpt to master surgery. At the age of 26 he defended the dissertation under the title “Ligation of Arterial Vessels”, and became a professor of surgery. Pirogov very soon became known as one of the best surgeons of his time. He wrote 24 major works, the most famous of which are “Topographic Anatomy”, General Field Surgery”, “On the Section of Achilles Tendon” and others.

There is no field of biology and anatomy, pathology and surgery to which the brilliant mind of the Russian scientist did not contribute. Pirogov opened new possibilities in surgery. He was the first to perform osteo-plastic operation (now known as “Pirogov’s operation”). It brought him world fame. He was also the first to divide the Achilles tendon and operated on the intestine in case of bullet wound. The greatest Russian surgeon became the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia to make operations painless. Ether masks helped the surgeons greatly.

At the age of 51 Pirogov retired and settled in the village Vishnya, where he opened a small hospital. He died on November 23, 1881 at the age of 71.

History of Medicine.

Medicine is among the most ancient of human occupations. It began as an art and gradually developed into a science over centuries. There are 3 main stages in medicine development: Medicine of Ancient civilizations, Medicine of Middle Ages and Modern Medicine.

Early man, like the animals, was subject to illness and death. At that time medical actions were mostly a part of ceremonial rituals. The medicine-man practiced magic to help people who are ill or had a wound. New civilizations, which developed from early tribes, began to study the human body, its anatomic composition. Magic still played an important part in treating but new practical methods were also developing. The early Indians, e.g., set fractures and practiced aromatherapy. The Chinese were pioneers of immunization and acupuncture. The contribution of the Greeks in medicine was enormous. An early leader in Greek medicine was Aesculapius. His daughters, Hygiea and Panacea gave rise to dynasties of healers(curative medicine) and hygienists(preventive medicine). The division in curative and preventive medicine is true today. The ethic principles of a physician were summarized by another Greek, Hippocrates. They are known as Hippocratic Oath.

The next stage of medicine’s development was the Middle Ages. A very important achievement of that time was the hospital. The first ones appeared in the 15^th century in Oriental countries and later in Europe. Another advance of the Middle Ages was the foundation of universities during 13^th –14^th centuries. Among other disciplines students could study medicine. During the 18^th century new discoveries were made in chemistry, anatomy, biology, other sciences. The advances of that time were invention of the stethoscope(by Rene Laennec), vaccination for the smallpox, discovery of anaesthetics and development of immunology and scientific surgery.

The next century is the rise of bacteriology. Important discoveries were made by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. The development of scientific bacteriology made possible advances in surgery: using antiseptics and control of wound infection.

Medicine in the 20^th century made enormous contributions in the basic medical sciences. These are discovery of blood groups and vitamins, invention of insulin and penicillin, practice of plastic surgery and transplantation.

At the Chemist’s.

On receiving prescription from a doctor all of us need medicines which are ordered or bought at a chemist’s.

There are usually two departments in a large chemist’s. At the chemist’s department one can have the medicines right away. Other drugs have to be ordered at the prescription department.

At the chemist’s all the drugs are kept in drug cabinets. Every small bottle, a tube or a box of medicine has a label on it. The color of the label indicates the way of drugs’ administration - externally or internally. The dose to be taken and the directions for administration are also indicated on a label. Indicating the dose and the name of any medicine is necessary for chemists, nurses, doctors and patients themselves. It prevents confusing different remedies, some of which are poisonous.

To avoid untoward reactions every patient must know well that he is taking the right medicine and in a correct dosage.

At the chemist’s one can find small parcels of different powders, ampules of solutions for injections, tablets for internal and sublingual use, tubes of different ointments, vitamins and sleeping pills, sedatives and tonics and so on.

There we can also get various subjects of personal hygiene and things for taking care of patients. These are hot water bottles, thermometer, dressings, ice-bags, mustard plasters and so on.

AT THE DOCTOR.

HEALTH is not only an absence of a disease but a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Our health depends upon many things but mostly upon the way of life we lead.

A large number of clinics, hospitals, out-patient units take care of our health. A network of health resorts and sanatoriums helps people to improve their health condition. Besides, sports help us to keep fit and avoid diseases.

But no matter how hard we try to avoid them, we often catch cold or infection and fall ill. Then we have to consult a doctor.

A person who is not well may consult a physician for various complaints: weakness, fever, temperature and all kinds of pains.

Before making a diagnosis, the doctor examines the patient. The usual methods of examination are inquiry, inspection, auscultation, percussion, palpation, taking the temperature, feeling the pulse, checking the blood pressure, making X-ray examination, and various laboratory studies.

By questioning the patient, the doctor learns about his complaints, the onset of the disease, the past and family histories of the patient.

Inspection reveals the general appearance of the patient, complexion, the state of his tongue and pupils.

While auscultation, the physician may discern murmurs in the heart and crepitations in the lungs.

By palpating the patient, the physician determines heat and cold of the skin, elasticity or rigidity of the abdomen, swelling and the existence of growths.

Percussion reveals dullness or impairment of sounds and distribution of fluids in the body.

The usual laboratory studies are various blood tests, urine analysis and so on. In order to detect lesions in the bones or tissues patients are X-rayed.

After a thorough examination, the doctor makes a diagnosis. He administers treatment and prescribes some drugs. If the patient is unable to work, he puts him on a sick list.

Doctors Without Borders.

It’s already known that a nuclear war will be the human and environmental disaster. It would immediately become global, total and final. After it almost all medical service, staff and facilities would be destroyed.

For these reasons, professional and human duty of physicians and health organizations is to prevent the nuclear war and the nuclear arms race.

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) is a global physician’s organization. It was founded in 1980. The initiators of this movement are Academician Euvgeny Chazov (Russia) and Professor Bernard Lown (USA). The contributors are Professor John Boag (Britain), Doctor Naomi Shono (Japan) and others.

The aim of this organization is to bring together physicians and apply their medical knowledge to the cause of preventing the nuclear war and controlling the nuclear arms race. Participants of the IPPNW Congresses focused on the physiological, psychological and biological effects of nuclear war. In 1985 this organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of the movement’s activities.

Another organization has become more significant nowadays. It is Doctors Without Borders, a private, nonprofit, international organization. It aims to provide medical relief to populations in crisis. Doctors Without Borders was founded in 1971 by a group of physicians. It offers emergency assistance wherever wars and man-made disasters occur. The organization operates independently of all political, economic, or religious influences. It depends on volunteer health professionals. Doctors Without Borders volunteers worked in Yugoslavia during the war, after earthquake in Armenia and during epidemic in African countries. In 1999 Doctors Without Borders was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its humane activities.

Health and Environment

Environmentis the complex of physical, chemical and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an ecological community and determine its form and survival.

All of us undergo direct or indirect influence by environmental factors such as air, water, soil and food. It is a fact that since his early day on the earth man has been interesting with nature, and it is this interference that is at the root of the present day global crisis.

The problem of environment was first recognized only in the midforties. Man changes nature; builds cities, creates channels, uses natural resources. As a result of this our planet becomes insuitable for humanity.

Pollution is a global problem.

Air is the most immediately vital resource. Air pollution results from introduction of harmful materials into the atmosphere (chemical, radioactive and biological). There is a definite correlation between the degree of air pollution and rates of incidence and death from bronchitis, pneumonia and lung cancer.

Water pollution means contamination of water supplies by industrial, domestic, agriculture wastes. Water pollution becomes not only an esthetic problem for man; but an economic and medical one as well. Bacterial and viral contamination is a threat for the spread of waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera and hepatitis. The processes used to control water pollution include sedimentation, coagulation, filtration of the organic matter.

Medical science has shown that excessive noise can cause irritability, fatigue and emotional stress. Prolonged noise can also cause hearing loss, changes in heart rate, blood pressure and metabolism. Generally speaking noise is a serious threat to the quality of our lives.

The Earth is our home and we must take care of it, for ourselves and for the future generations. This means keeping our Environment clean. World is interdependent and actions for environment protection must be the result of international cooperation. United we survive. However, each of us must do everything possible to keep the land, air and water clean.

The Greens refuse to identify progress. Their principle is “act here and now” and they try to act without delay

Medical Education in Russia.

There is a great number of medical schools in Russia. Applicants have to pass 3 entrance exams to get into medical school. Usually they are chemistry, biology and Russian literature.

Medical education in Russia is very competitive. There are up to 10 candidates for each place at medical school. The entrance exams take place over 10 days in July. Students who fail at these exams can reapply the next year.

Medical education takes 6 years in Russia. The first two years are pre-clinical – students study anatomy, physiology, physics, histology and also philosophy. From the beginning of the course they spend one day a week in hospital, where students learn how to take patients’ blood, pressure and temperature and to give injections.

The third year is a transitional year between the pre-clinical and clinical years. Students learn pathology, pharmacology, general surgery and general medicine. At the end of the third year all students take a six-week practical course as nursing assistants.

The fourth and the fifth years are clinical. Students have tutorials in the mornings, then see patients and have lectures in the afternoons. After a fourth year students have a practical course lasting 8 weeks. They work as doctors’ assistants at the therapeutical, surgical, obstetric and gynecological and other departments. After the fifth year they take a six-week course in out-patients’ clinics.

In the sixth year students work on chosen specialization almost as real doctors under the supervision of specialists.

Upon completion of the sixth year, having passed state exams, graduates get a diploma. After one year internship they receive a certificate of specialization. After qualifying students do one or two years of residency. Postgraduate training includes 3 years of research and leads after defending a thesis to a Candidate of Sciences (Medicine).

SARATOV STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY.

Our medical university is old. It was founded in 1909. It was the 10^th university in Russia. At that time the university had only one medical faculty. The founder and the first rector was professor V. Razumovsky, an outstanding surgeon.

The first 93 students admitted to the university were men. Women were not allowed to study at the university till 1914. Several departments in the basic sciences were opened at that time: Physiology, Chemistry, General and Operative Surgery, Histology, Forensic Medicine and others.

In 1930 the university was reorganized. An independent medical institute was formed. There were 3 faculties at the institute: Medical, Sanitary-Prophylactic and Care of Mother and Child. Many talented scientists worked at the institute at that time. They were Mirotvortsev, Bogomolets, Spasokukotsky and many others. The institute trained a lot of highly qualified specialists. They worked in different fields of medicine.

Since 1993 the institute is the university again. Now there are 6 faculties. They are faculty of medicine, faculty of pediatrics, faculty of dentistry, faculty of nursing, faculty of preventive medicine and pharmaceutical faculty.

I am a student of the pediatric faculty. At our faculty the course of studies lasts for 6 years and consists of pre-clinical, transitional and clinical periods. The general theoretic and practical training ends in the 5^th year. During the 6^th year students study at the sub-internship. There they take the primary specialization as pediatricians, surgeons and infectionists. At the end of the 6^th year students have state exams, receive their diploma and apply for internship. At the internship young doctors can specialize in therapy, nervous diseases, psychiatry, eye diseases, otolaryngology and radiology. After the specialization students have an exam in their speciality.

Medical Education in England.

Two kinds of medical establishments train doctors in great Britain: medical faculties of the Universities and higher medical schools. 14% of them are private schools.

To enter medical higher school applicants take 5-6 entrance exams: in English, in Foreign language, in Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics.

The course of study lasts for 8 years. English medical schools have no state general curriculum. Each school has its own curriculum which includes compulsory and non-compulsory subjects. Compulsory subjects are Biology, Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry and others. Non-compulsory subjects are Biophysics, Physics, Social Health Protection and so on.

A 5-year curriculum consists of four periods: premedical, pre-clinical, introductory clinical and clinical. The premedical period (the first year) deals with Chemistry, Physics, Biology. Students have lectures and practical hours. The pre-clinical period includes such subjects as Anatomy, Histology, Organic Chemistry and others. During premedical and pre-clinical periods students study compulsory and non-compulsory subjects. During the introductory clinical and clinical periods they study only compulsory subjects. They learn the methods of clinical examination of the patient, history taking, nursing, clinical service. They study Pathology, Psychiatry, Practical Pharmacy and so on. The clinical period of training lasts from the third till the fifth year.

After graduation from a higher school young specialists must take a one year internship before they begin to work as doctors. They must work as interns at a clinic. In addition to that every doctor must have a 3-year specialization and take several final exams..

Education in Great Britain is not free of charge, 50% of students get grants. It depends on their success in studies and their family status.

Famous people in Medicine.

N.I. Pirogov.

The development of surgery began in the 19^th century. The founder of modern surgery was the greatest Russian scientist N.I. Pirogov.

Pirogov was born in Moscow on November 13, 1810. At the age of 14 he entered Medical faculty of Moscow University. He studied brilliantly and at the age of 18 graduated from the University. After that he was sent to Derpt to master surgery. At the age of 26 he defended the dissertation under the title “Ligation of Arterial Vessels”, and became a professor of surgery. Pirogov very soon became known as one of the best surgeons of his time. He wrote 24 major works, the most famous of which are “Topographic Anatomy”, General Field Surgery”, “On the Section of Achilles Tendon” and others.

There is no field of biology and anatomy, pathology and surgery to which the brilliant mind of the Russian scientist did not contribute. Pirogov opened new possibilities in surgery. He was the first to perform osteo-plastic operation (now known as “Pirogov’s operation”). It brought him world fame. He was also the first to divide the Achilles tendon and operated on the intestine in case of bullet wound. The greatest Russian surgeon became the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia to make operations painless. Ether masks helped the surgeons greatly.

At the age of 51 Pirogov retired and settled in the village Vishnya, where he opened a small hospital. He died on November 23, 1881 at the age of 71.

History of Medicine.

Medicine is among the most ancient of human occupations. It began as an art and gradually developed into a science over centuries. There are 3 main stages in medicine development: Medicine of Ancient civilizations, Medicine of Middle Ages and Modern Medicine.

Early man, like the animals, was subject to illness and death. At that time medical actions were mostly a part of ceremonial rituals. The medicine-man practiced magic to help people who are ill or had a wound. New civilizations, which developed from early tribes, began to study the human body, its anatomic composition. Magic still played an important part in treating but new practical methods were also developing. The early Indians, e.g., set fractures and practiced aromatherapy. The Chinese were pioneers of immunization and acupuncture. The contribution of the Greeks in medicine was enormous. An early leader in Greek medicine was Aesculapius. His daughters, Hygiea and Panacea gave rise to dynasties of healers(curative medicine) and hygienists(preventive medicine). The division in curative and preventive medicine is true today. The ethic principles of a physician were summarized by another Greek, Hippocrates. They are known as Hippocratic Oath.

The next stage of medicine’s development was the Middle Ages. A very important achievement of that time was the hospital. The first ones appeared in the 15^th century in Oriental countries and later in Europe. Another advance of the Middle Ages was the foundation of universities during 13^th –14^th centuries. Among other disciplines students could study medicine. During the 18^th century new discoveries were made in chemistry, anatomy, biology, other sciences. The advances of that time were invention of the stethoscope(by Rene Laennec), vaccination for the smallpox, discovery of anaesthetics and development of immunology and scientific surgery.

The next century is the rise of bacteriology. Important discoveries were made by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. The development of scientific bacteriology made possible advances in surgery: using antiseptics and control of wound infection.

Medicine in the 20^th century made enormous contributions in the basic medical sciences. These are discovery of blood groups and vitamins, invention of insulin and penicillin, practice of plastic surgery and transplantation.