EARLY PRINTING AND GRAPHIC DESIGN

The creation of manuscripts led to high points in graphic design, but it was with the development of printmaking technologies that the art and practice of graphic design truly blossomed. Their antecedents occurred in China, where the use of woodblock, or relief, printing, was developed perhaps as early as the 6^th century AD. This process, which was accomplished by applying ink to a raised carved surface, allowed multiple copies of texts and images to be made quickly and economically. The Chinese also developed paper made from organic fibres by AD 105. This paper provided an economical surface for writing or printing; other substrates, such as parchment and papyrus, were much more costly to prepare than paper.

Surviving artifacts show that the Chinese developed a wide range of uses for printing and that they achieved a high level of artistry in graphic design and printing from an early date. Artisans cut calligraphic symbols into woodblocks and printed them beautifully; printed sheets of paper bearing illustrations and religious texts were then pasted together to make printed scrolls. By the 9^th or 10^th century, paged woodblock books replaced scrolls, and literary, historical, and herbal works were published. Paper money and playing cards were also designed, their designs cut into woodblocks and printed.

Chinese alchemist Bi Sheng invented a movable-type printing technique about AD 1040s; however, this technology did not replace the hand-cut woodblock in Asia, in part because manipulating the thousands of tablets with characters used in calligraphic languages required an enormous amount of labour.

Chinese inventions slowly spread across the Middle East and into Europe. By the 15^th century, woodblock broadsides and books printed on paper were being made in Europe. By 1450 Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz (Germany) invented a method for printing text from alphabet characters cast on movable metal types. After this, printed books began to replace costly handmade manuscript books. Designers of early typographic books in Europe attempted to replicate manuscripts. While setting the type, spaces were left for illuminators to add pictures, ornate initials and other decorative material by hand. In this way, the compositor or typesetter was in effect the designer. Some surviving copies of Gutenberg's landmark 42-line Bible have headers, initials, and sentence markers applied by hand in red and blue inks.

By the mid-15^th century, printers combined woodblock illustrations with typeset text to create easily produced illustrated printed books. They printed woodblock decorative borders and ornamental initials along with the type, subsequently having colour applied by hand to these printed elements.

The prevalence of movable type and increasingly advanced printing technology in Europe meant that, of all other cultures, major advances in graphic design over the next several centuries would mainly be centred in Europe.

Illustrations:1. Detail of the GutenbergBible, printed by JohannesGutenberg. 1445.

UNIT VI

VERBS & COMBINATIONS WITH VERBS

1. to conceive smth as … [kən'si:v] задумывать что-л как …

2. to equal smth / smb ['i:kwəl] – быть равным (чему-л / кому-л)

3. to found smth (here: publishing house) – основывать что-л (здесь: издательство)

homo. to found smth [faʊnd] – отливать, лить (металл)

4. to see some process – быть свидетелем какого-л процесса

N.B.: Mind the ways of rendering the meaning of the utterances with “to see” as the predicate of an inanimate subject:

The Renaissance saw a revival, or “rebirth,” of Classical learning from ancient Greece and Rome. Во время эпохи Ренессанса произошло “возрождение” классических идей древних Греции и Рима.

COMBINATIONS WITH ADJECTIVES

5. to be available (to smb) [ə'veɪləbl]– быть доступным (для кого-л, кому-л)

syn. accessible, free, at (on) hand, handy, obtainable, open to, within reach

NOUNS & COMBINATIONS WITH THEIR ATTRIBUTES

6. fine typography – книгопечатание отличного качества

ADVERBS

7. apparently [ə'pærəntlɪ]– по-видимому, очевидно

8. exquisitely (light) [ɪk'skwɪzɪtlɪ] – изысканно, утончённо; исключительно (лёгкий)

9. importantly [ɪm'pɔ:t(ə)ntlɪ] – важно отметить, что …

10. seemingly ['si:mɪŋlɪ] – по внешнему виду, на вид

PROFESSIONAL TERMS

11. capital (letter) – большая, прописная (буква)

syn. v.s.UNIT III:initial (letter)

12. column ['kɒləm] – колонка, столбец

13. to commission smth – заказывать что-л (у художника), делать заказ на что-л

14. complement to smth ['kɒmplɪmənt] – дополнение (к чему-л)

homoph. compliment ['kɒmplɪmənt] – комплимент, похвала, любезность

15. engraving [ɪn'greɪvɪŋ] – гравюра, гравирование (по дереву, камню, металлу)

16. font [fɒnt] – комплект шрифта (набор всех букв, знаков и символов шрифта одного начертания)

17. to frame smth with smth else – обрамить что-л чем-л

18. italic (typeface) [ɪ'tælɪk] – курсивная (гарнитура шрифта), курсив

19. layout ['leɪaʊt] – макет (книги)

v.s. UNIT III: to lay out a page – размечать, планировать страницу

20. lowercase letter [ˌləʊə'keɪs 'letə] – строчная буква

ant. v.s. UNIT III: initial,capital letter

21. Old Style type / font ['əʊldstaɪl] – старомодный шрифт / комплект шрифта

22. pocket-size(d) edition ['pɒkɪtsaɪ(z_ ɪ'dɪ∫n] – карманное, миниатюрное издание

23. punch ['pʌnt∫] – пуансон (в полиграфии стальной брусок с рельефным изображением буквы или знака, служит для выдавливания изображения при изготовлении шрифтовых матриц)

24. punch-cutter['pʌnt∫kʌtə] – (гравёр-)пуансонист

25. spread [spred] – разворот (книги)

26. typeface ['taɪpfeɪs] – гарнитура шрифта

27. typefounder ['taɪpfaʊndə] – шрифтолитейщик

28. woodcut ['wʊdkʌt] – гравюра на дереве, ксилография

CULTUROLOGICAL & HISTORICAL TERMS

29. Aldus Manutius the Elder ['ɔ:ldəs mə'nʊ∫əs ði 'eldə] – Альд Мануций Старший (1449-1515) (итальянский печатник, основатель венецианского издательства «Альдин Пресс» (1495))

30. Book of Hours – Часослов (Богослужебная книга, содержащая тексты неизменяемых молитвословий суточного богослужебного круга.)

31. Carolingian period [ˌkærə'lɪnɪən] – период правления династии Каролингов (c 751 года в государстве франков – до 987 года в Западно-Франкском королевстве (Франции), до 911 года в Восточно-Франкском королевстве (Германии), до 905 года в Италии)

syn. Carlovingian

32. Claude Garamond ['klɔ:d gərə'mɔ:ŋ] – Клод Гарамо́н (ок. 1500 – 1561) (парижский пуансонист, печатник, одна из важнейших фигур французского ренессанса)

33. Francesco Colonna [frən't∫eskəʊ kə'ləʊnə] – Франческо Колонна (1433(?) – 1527) (итальянский доминиканский священник и монах, предполагаемый автор «Гипнэротомахии Полифила»)

34. Francesco Griffo – Франческо Гриффо (1450–1518) (один из первых и самых выдающихся профессиональных граверов-пуансонистов. Гравировал шрифты для типографии Альда Мануция Старшего)

35. Hypnerotomachia Poliphili – n /[hi:pˌnɪərəʊtə'mɑ:ki:ə pə'li:fəˌli:] (the Greek hýpnos (“sleep”) + éros (“love”) + máchē (“fight”) = the English Poliphilo's Strife of Love in a Dream – Гипнэротомахия Полифила (Любовное борение во сне Полифила) – мистический роман эпохи Возрождения, впервые изданный в Венеции 1499 году

36. Geoffroy Tory [ˌʒɔ:frwɑ: tə'ri:] – Жоффруа́ Тори́ (ок.1480 – до 1533)(французский художник-гравёр, книготорговец и издатель. Во многом определил стиль оформления книг во Франции XVI века; сыграл ведущую роль в деле пропаганды прямого романского шрифта в противовес более популярному в ту пору готическому.)

37. Renaissance [rɪ'neɪs(ə)ns] – Ренессанс, эпоха Возрождения

CONSTRUCTIONS

38. v.s. UNIT IV: Smth is believed to be done (by smb)

Mind the usage and ways of translation of the modal word “to seem” expressing the idea of some doubt, uncertainty, etc. on the part of the speaker

39. Smth seems (to be) adj

e.g. Additional innovation seemed unnecessary. Казалось (Похоже было), что дополнительные нововведения не требовались.

RENAISSANCE BOOK DESIGN

The Renaissance saw a revival, or “rebirth,” of Classical learning from ancient Greece and Rome throughout Europe. Beginning from the late 15^th century, printing played a major role in this process by making knowledge from the ancient world available to all readers. Typeface designs evolved toward what are now called Old Style types, which were inspired by capital letters found in ancient Roman inscriptions and by lowercase letters found in manuscript writing from the Carolingian period.

The Italian scholar and printer Aldus Manutius the Elder founded his Aldine Press in 1495 to produce printed editions of many Greek and Latin classics. His innovations included inexpensive, pocket-sized editions of books with cloth covers. About 1500 Manutius introduced the first italic typeface, cast from punches cut by type designer Francesco Griffo. Because more of these narrow letters that slanted to the right could be fit on a page, the new pocket-sized books came to be set in fewer pages.

The prototype for Renaissance book design was the Aldine Press's 1499 Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, believed to be written by Francesco Colonna. The design of the work achieves an understated simplicity and tonal harmony, and its elegant synthesis of type and image has seldom been equaled. The layout combined exquisitely light woodcuts by an anonymous illustrator with roman types by Griffo utilizing new, smaller capitals; Griffo cut these types after careful study of Roman inscriptions. Importantly, double-page spreads were conceived in the book as unified designs, rather than as two separate pages.

During the 16th century, France became a centre for fine typography and book design. Geoffroy Tory – whose considerable talents included design, engraving, and illustration, in addition to his work as a scholar and author – created books with types, ornaments, and illustrations that achieved the seemingly contradictory qualities of delicacy and complexity. In his Book of Hours (1531), he framed columns of roman type with modular borders; these exuberant forms were a perfect complement to his illustrations.

Typeface designer and punch-cutter Claude Garamond, one of Tory's pupils, achieved refinement and consistency in his Old Style fonts. Printers commissioned types from him rather than casting their own, making Garamond the first independent typefounder not directly associated with a printing firm. Works by Tory, Garamond, and many other graphic artists and printers created a standard of excellence in graphic design that spread beyond France.

The 17^th century was a quiet time for graphic design. Apparently the stock of typeface designs, woodblock illustrations, and ornaments produced during the 16^th century satisfied the needs of most printers, and additional innovation seemed unnecessary.

Illustrations:1. Two-page spread from the Aldine Press's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499).